Danish West Indies
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Danish West Indies Dansk Vestindien | |||||||
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1672–1917 | |||||||
The Flag of Denmark | |||||||
Status | Colony of Denmark–Norway (1672–1814) Colony of Denmark | ||||||
Capital | Charlotte Amalie (1672–1754,1871–1917) Christiansted (1754–1871) | ||||||
Common languages | Danish English English Creole Dutch Dutch Creole | ||||||
Governor-General | |||||||
• 1756–66 | Christian Leberecht von Prøck (first) | ||||||
• 1916–17 | Henri Konow (last) | ||||||
History | |||||||
• Danish West India Company takes possession of Saint Thomas | 1672 | ||||||
1685–1754 | |||||||
• Saint John colonized and claimed | 1717–1718 | ||||||
• Danish West India Company purchases Saint Croix from French West India Company | 1733 | ||||||
31 March 1917 | |||||||
Area | |||||||
[1] | 400 km2 (150 sq mi) | ||||||
Population | |||||||
• 1911[1] | 27,000 | ||||||
Currency | Rigsdaler (1754–1849) Daler (1849–1917) From 1905, the currency of the Latin Coin Union was used Danish krone-DKK (1875-1917) | ||||||
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History of the United States Virgin Islands |
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United States Portal |
The Danish West Indies (
The
Danish colonizers in the West Indies aimed to exploit the profitable triangular trade, involving the export of firearms and other manufactured goods to Africa in exchange for slaves, who were then transported to the Caribbean to work the sugar plantations. Caribbean colonies, in turn, exported sugar, rum and molasses to Denmark. The economy of the Danish West Indies depended on slavery. After a rebellion, slavery was officially abolished in 1848, leading to the near economic collapse of the plantations.
In 1852, the Danish parliament first debated the sale of the increasingly unprofitable colony. Denmark tried several times to sell or exchange the Danish West Indies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: to the United States and to the German Empire, respectively. The islands were eventually sold to the United States for $25 million (equivalent to $594,550,000 in 2023) which took over the administration on 31 March 1917 and renamed the territory the United States Virgin Islands.
History
Foundation
Merchants in
Smit's 1653 expedition and a separate expedition of five ships were quite successful, but Smit's third expedition found his two vessels captured for a loss of 32,000
Danish West India Company
The Danes formed a
In 1675, Iversen claimed
The islands quickly became a base for pirates attacking ships in the vicinity and also for the
Later history (1801–1917)
The first British invasion and occupation of the Danish West Indies occurred during the French Revolutionary Wars, when at the end of March 1801 a British fleet arrived at St Thomas. The Danes accepted the Articles of Capitulation the British proposed and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. The British occupation lasted until April 1802, when the British returned the islands to Denmark.
The second British
By the 1850s, the Danish West Indies had a total population of about 41,000 people. The government of the islands was under a governor-general, whose jurisdiction extended to the other Danish colonies of the group. However, because the islands formerly belonged to Great Britain, the inhabitants were English in customs and in language. The islands of that period consisted of:[7]
- St. Thomas had a population of 12,800 people and had sugar and cotton as its chief exports.[8] St. Thomas city was the capital of the island, then a free port, and the chief station of the steam-packets between Southampton, in England, and the West Indies.
- St. John had a population of about 2,600 people.[9]
- St. Croix, though inferior to St. Thomas in commerce, was of greater importance in extent and fertility, and, with 25,600 people,[10] was the largest in population.
The United States had been interested in the islands since at least the 1860s when President Andrew Johnson came close to obtaining St. Thomas and St. John, as Denmark agreed to sell in 1867 for $7.5 million and the local population approved the transfer in a plebiscite, but the US Senate never voted on the treaty and it expired.[11] The Danish Parliament rejected both a convention and a treaty in 1902.[12]
The United States acted again in 1915 because of the islands' strategic position near the approach to the Panama Canal and because of a fear that Germany might seize them to use as U-boat bases during World War I. A referendum was held in Denmark itself on the future of the islands, which had become both a financial burden and a strategic concern. On 17 January 1917, according to the Treaty of the Danish West Indies, the Danish government sold the islands to the United States for $25 million ($595 million in current prices), when the United States and Denmark exchanged their respective treaty ratifications and with the US removing its objections to Denmark taking control of the whole of Greenland. Danish administration ended on 31 March 1917, when the United States took formal possession of the territory and renamed it the United States Virgin Islands.[13][14] Rear Admiral James H. Oliver was the first American governor of the Danish West Indies.[14]
At the time of the U.S. purchase of the Danish West Indies in 1917, the colony did not include
Postage stamps
St Thomas was a hub of the West Indies packet trade from 1851 to 1885. Denmark issued stamps for the Danish West Indies from 1856 onward.
Religion
The Danish West Indies were inhabited by many different cultures, and each had its own traditions and religions. The king and the church worked closely together to maintain law and order; the church was responsible for people's moral upbringing, and the king led the civil order. There was no state-sponsored religion in Denmark until 1849, but in the Danish West Indies there had always been a great deal of religious freedom. Danish authorities tended to be lenient towards religious beliefs, but required that all citizens had to observe
Jews began settling the colony in 1655, and by 1796
In spite of a general tolerance for religion, many
By 1900, with a population of 30,000, a fourth of the people were
Slavery
Demographics
Slaves outnumbered whites on all islands, often by large margins. On Saint Thomas, population expansion was recorded as 422 blacks and 317 whites in 1688, 555 blacks and 383 whites in 1699,[clarification needed] and 3,042 blacks and 547 whites in 1715 (a ratio of more than 5:1), and by 1755 slaves outnumbered whites 12:1. On Saint John, there were 677 blacks and 123 whites in 1728, 1086 blacks and 208 whites in 1733 (a ratio of more than 5:1), and by 1770 slaves outnumbered whites 19:1. On Saint Croix in 1797, there were 25,452 slaves and 2,223 whites (a ratio of more than 11:1) as well as 1,164 freedmen, and in 1815 there were 24,330 slaves and 180 whites (a ratio of more than 135:1) as well as 2,480 freedmen. At that time, freedmen (many of whom had purchased their freedom) also outnumbered whites on Saint Thomas and Saint John.[19]
Slave trade
Trading African slaves was part of the
By 1778, it was estimated that the Danes were bringing about 3,000 Africans to the Danish West Indies yearly for enslavement.[21] These transports continued until the end of 1802, when a 1792 law by Crown Prince Regent Frederik that banned the trade of slaves came into effect.[22]
Slave codes
Laws and regulations in the Danish West Indies were based on Denmark's laws, but the local government was allowed to adapt them to match local conditions. For example, things like animals, land, and buildings were regulated according to Danish law, but Danish law did not regulate slavery. Slaves were treated as common property, and therefore did not necessitate specific laws.
In 1733, differentiation between slaves and other property was implied by a regulation that stated that slaves had their own will and thus could behave inappropriately or be disobedient. There was a general consensus that if the slaves were punished too hard or were malnourished, the slaves would start to rebel. This was borne out by the 1733 slave insurrection on St. John, where many plantation owners and their families were killed by the Akwamu, including Breffu, before it was suppressed later the following year.[23] In 1755 Frederick V of Denmark issued more new Regulations, in which slaves were guaranteed the right not to be separated from their children and the right to medical support during periods of illness or old age. However, the colonial government had the ability to amend laws and regulations according to local conditions, and thus the regulations were never enacted in the colony, on grounds that it was more disadvantageous than advantageous.[24]
1733 slave insurrection
The 1733 slave insurrection on St. John, which lasted from November 1733 until August 1734, was one of the earliest and longest
Planters regained control by the end of May 1734, after the Akwamu were defeated by several hundred better-armed French and Swiss troops sent in April from
Emancipation
By the 1830s and 1840s, the sugar beet industry had reduced the profitability of sugarcane. The British Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 emancipated slaves in the neighboring British West Indies, fully effective as of 1840. Abolition in the Danish West Indies was discussed, with Governor von Scholten, who had been seeking reforms since 1830, in favor of emancipation.[27][28] Scholarly consensus suggests von Scholten's views were influenced by his free-colored mistress Anna Heegaard.[29][30][31]
King Christian VIII supported the gradual abolition of slavery and ruled in 1847 that every child born of an unfree woman should be free from birth, and that slavery would end entirely after 12 years. That ruling satisfied neither the slaves nor the plantation owners.[32]
Meanwhile, on 27 April 1848, France signed a law to abolish slavery in their colonies within two months, but a slave insurrection on Martinique led to immediate abolition on Martinique on 22 May and Guadeloupe on 27 May.[33]
The slaves in the Danish West Indies did not want to wait for their freedom, either. On 2 July 1848, freedman John Gottlieb (also known as "Moses Gottlieb" or "General Buddhoe") and Admiral Martin King (among others) led a slave rebellion, taking over Frederiksted, Saint Croix.[34] That evening, hundreds of slaves gathered peaceably outside Fort Frederik refusing to work the next day and demanding freedom. By 10 a.m. the following morning, about 8,000 slaves had joined.[35]
On the afternoon of 3 July 1848 (now known as Emancipation Day), Peter von Scholten, in order to end the rebellion and prevent bloodshed and damages, went to Frederiksted and announced an immediate and total emancipation of all slaves. He then went to Christiansted, where a second rebellion had formed and some fires had been set, and had notices disseminated to the other islands. General Buddhoe worked with the governor and other officials to end the riots and violence that had broken out on a few estates.[36]
In the aftermath, Buddhoe is said to have been jailed and exiled to Trinidad.[36] Governor von Scholten also fared poorly. As governor, he did not actually have the authority to end slavery, but had found himself in a situation where he needed to take immediate action that could not wait for communicating with Denmark. For his actions, he was called back to Denmark to face a trial for treason. He was first denied his pension, but later cleared of the charges.[37]
When Denmark abolished slavery in 1848, many plantation owners wanted full reimbursement on the grounds that their assets were damaged by the loss of the slaves, and by the fact that they would have to pay for labor in the future. The Danish government paid fifty dollars for every slave the plantation owners had owned and recognized that the slaves' release had caused a financial loss for the owners.[24]
Post-slavery
The lives of the formerly enslaved people changed very little because many continued to be bound to the plantation system through contractual servitude.[38] Most were bound to serve the plantations where they had previously been enslaved. As employees, former slaves were not the plantation owners' responsibility and did not receive food or care from their employers. As part of a sharecropping system, some formerly enslaved people received a small hut, a little land, and some money; however, this one-time compensation did not change the harsh working conditions.
The Fireburn labor riot, considered to be the largest labor revolt in Danish colonial history, took place on October 1, 1878.[39] The revolt began because the formerly enslaved continued to live and work in slave-like conditions even though three decades had passed since the abolition of slavery. Mary Leticia Thomas, today referred to as Queen Mary of St. Croix, spearheaded the revolt alongside three other women: Axeline ‘Agnes’ Elizabeth Salomon, Matilde McBean and Susanna ‘Bottom Belly’ Abrahamsson.[40] The Fireburn uprising and its leaders continue to have a meaningful role in St. Croix.
2017 marked the 100th anniversary of the sale of the colony by Denmark to the United States. With this centennial, conversations on the legacy of Danish–Norwegian colonization and slavery were reignited in the Scandinavian mainstream.[41][42] For example, the artists Jeannette Ehlers and La Vaughn Belle unveiled Denmark's first statue of a black woman, I Am Queen Mary, to memorialize Denmark's colonial impact.
See also
- Kingdom of Denmark
- List of governors of the Danish West Indies
- 1868 Danish West Indies status referendum
- 1916 Danish West Indies status referendum
- 1916 Danish West Indian Islands sale referendum
- Danish India
- Danish Gold Coast
- Danish slave trade
- Estate Rust Op Twist
- Grove Place, U.S. Virgin Islands
Notes
References
- ^ a b "Dansk Vestindia". Caplex. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
- ^
Dookhan, Isaac (1994) [1974]. "Danish Colonial Expansion". A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States. Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe Press. p. 40. ISBN 9789768125057. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
The Danes found no one living on St. Thomas when they landed. The English settlers who had occupied the island after the end of the first Danish settlement, had left six or seven weeks before, though the reason for their departure is not known. [...] Denmark's long association with the Virgin Islands began with this occupation of St. Thomas in 1672.
- ^ ISBN 9789768125057.
- OCLC 1533021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ Marcussen, Jørgen. "De Vestindiske Øer - kronologisk historisk oversigt" ["The West Indies: A Chronological Historical Overview"]. (in Danish)
- ^ Orlogsmuseet. "Færøe ex-Agathe (1653) Archived 26 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine".
- ^ Stewart, K. J., (1864). A Geography for Beginners. Richmond, Va: J W Randolph.
- ^ "The Danish West Indies". National Museum of Denmark. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- ISBN 9780241308691.
- ^ "The Danish West Indies". National Museum of Denmark. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-8262-1127-9.
- ^ Dänisch-Westindien (Amerikanische Jungferninseln), 9. Januar 1868 : Abtretung an die USA Direct Democracy (in German)
- ISBN 9780199366439. Retrieved 19 May 2021.
- ^ ISSN 0002-9300.
- ^ "Water Island History - the Military History of Water Island". Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
- ^ a b "History: St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved On 14 January 2012
- ^ "Historical Synagogue".
- OCLC 382082. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ "Timeline of the Virgin Islands" (PDF). Sara Smollett. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- S2CID 143440637.
- ^ Kitchin, Thomas (1778). The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe. London: R. Baldwin. p. 21.
- S2CID 143440637.
- ProQuest 1369397993.
- ^ a b Trolle Gronemann, Signe; Vindberg, Rikke (2005). "Begivenheder: 1733". SurtSødt (in Danish). Archived from the original on 26 June 2013.
- ISBN 978-1-4614-6201-9
- ^ "St. John Slave Rebellion". St. John Off the Beaten Track. Sombrero Publishing Co. 2000. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ "A Brief History of the Danish West Indies". Danish National Archives. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- Governor of the United States Virgin Islands. Retrieved on 3 July 2020.
- ^ "Anna Heegaard, mistress of Governor General Peter von Scholten". St. Croix Landmarks Society. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ISBN 9789768125057.
- ISBN 9789764100294. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
- ^ "The emancipation of the enslaved in 1848". Danish National Archives. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ^ "Monument to Abolition of Slavery". Slavery and Remembrance. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ^ "The slave rebellion on St. Croix and Emancipation". Danish National Archives. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ^ "Slave Resistances in Latin America". African American Information Service. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ^ a b "General Buddhoe~Liberator of the Virgin Islands". A People's Historical Journey to Self Determination and Decolonization 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
- ^ Bricka, C.F. (1901). Dansk Biografisk Lexikon. Copenhagen: Gyldendal. pp. 255–256.
- ^ "Embodying A Hero: Connecting to the past, present and future". I Am Queen Mary. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ "The Three Rebel Queens". The Danish West-Indies: Sources of History. Rigsarkivet. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ Witcombe, Nicola. "The 1878 Fireburn uprising in the Danish West Indies". Nordics Info. Aarhus University. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ Danbolt, Mathias; Wilson, Michael K. (26 April 2018). "A monumental Challenge to Danish History". Kunstkritikk. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ Keskinen, Suvi (3 March 2020). "Racism and colonial legacies in multicultural Nordic societies". Raster.fi. Anti-Racist Research Network. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
Further reading
- Andersen, Astrid Nonbo. ""We Have Reconquered the Islands": Figurations in Public Memories of Slavery and Colonialism in Denmark 1948–2012." International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 26, no. 1 (2013): 57–76. online
- Armstrong, Douglas V., et al. "Variation in venues of slavery and freedom: interpreting the late eighteenth-century cultural landscape of St. John, Danish West Indies using an archaeological GIS." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13.1 (2009): 94–111.
- Blaagaard, Bolette B. "Whose freedom? whose memories? commemorating Danish colonialism in St. Croix." Social Identities 17.1 (2011): 61–72.
- Christensen, Rasmus. "‘Against the Law of God, of nature and the secular world’: conceptions of sovereignty in early colonial St. Thomas, 1672–1680." Scandinavian Journal of History (2021): 1–17.
- Gøbel, Erik. "Danish trade to the West Indies and Guinea, 1671–1754." Scandinavian Economic History Review 31.1 (1983): 21–49. online
- Green-Pedersen, Sv E. "The scope and structure of the Danish Negro slave trade." Scandinavian Economic History Review 19.2 (1971): 149–197. online
- Hall, Neville A. T. "Maritime maroons: grand marronage from the Danish West Indies." in Origins of the Black Atlantic (Routledge, 2013) pp. 55–76. online
- Hall, Neville A. T. "Slave laws of the Danish Virgin Islands in the later eighteenth century." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 292.1 (1977): 174–186.
- Hall, Neville A. T. "Anna Heegaard – Enigma." Caribbean Quarterly 22.2–3 (1976): 62–73. online
- Hvid, Mirjam Louise. "Indentured servitude and convict labour in the Danish–Norwegian West Indies, 1671–1755." Scandinavian Journal of History 41.4–5 (2016): 541–564.
- Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish–Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016". .
- Mulich, Jeppe. "Microregionalism and intercolonial relations: the case of the Danish West Indies, 1730–1830." Journal of Global History 8.1 (2013): 72–94. online[dead link]
- Odewale, Alicia, H. Thomas Foster, and Joshua M. Torres. "In Service to a Danish King: Comparing the Material Culture of Royal Enslaved Afro-Caribbeans and Danish Soldiers at the Christiansted National Historic Site." Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 6.1 (2017): 19–54.
- Richards, Helen. "Distant garden: Moravian missions and the culture of slavery in the Danish West Indies, 1732–1848." Journal of Moravian History (2007): 55–74. online
- Roopnarine, Lomarsh. "Contract labor migration as an agent of revolutionary change in the Danish West Indies." Labor History 61.5–6 (2020): 692–705.
- Roopnarine, Lomarsh. Indian Indenture in the Danish West Indies, 1863–1873 (Springer, 2016).
- Simonsen, Gunvor. "Sovereignty, Mastery, and Law in the Danish West Indies, 1672–1733." Itinerario 43.2 (2019): 283–304.
- Simonsen, Gunvor. Slave Stories: Law, Representation, and Gender in the Danish West Indies. (ISD LLC, 2017) online.
- Sircar, Kumar K. "Emigration of Indian Indentured Labour to the Danish West Indian Island of St. Croix 1863–68." Scandinavian Economic History Review 19.2 (1971): 133–148. online
External links
- The Danish West-Indies, a primary source search portal maintained by the Danish National Archives.
- World Statesman
- Transfer Day. From the website of Denmark's consulate on Virgin Islands on the transfer of the Virgin Islands from Denmark to the United States in 1917.
- Reminiscences of a 46 years' residence in the island of St. Thomas, in the West Indies, by Johan Peter Nissen, (1838), a history of the Danish West Indies from 1792 to 1838.