Dano-Swedish War (1658–1660)
Dano-Swedish War (1658–1660) | |||||||||
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Part of the Second Northern War and Dano-Swedish War | |||||||||
The Assault on Copenhagen on February 11, 1659 by Frederik Christian Lund (1887). | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
Sweden |
Denmark–Norway Dutch Republic Brandenburg-Prussia Poland–Lithuania Habsburg Monarchy | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Charles X Gustav Carl Gustaf Wrangel Gustaf Otto Stenbock |
The Dano-Swedish War of 1658–1660 was a war between Denmark–Norway and Sweden, with the former backed by the Dutch Republic and Poland. It is known in Denmark as the Second Karl Gustav War (Danish: Anden Karl Gustav-krig), in Norway as Bjelkes Feud (Norwegian: Bjelkefeiden) in Sweden as Karl Gustav's Second Danish War (Swedish: Karl Gustavs andra danska krig), and in the Netherlands as the Swedish-Dutch War (Dutch: Zweeds-Nederlandse Oorlog).
It was a continuation of
The Swedish army surrounded Copenhagen, hoping to starve it into submission. This failed when the Dutch Republic joined the conflict on the Danish side and a reinforcing fleet managed to smash its way through the Swedish naval forces in Øresund. Charles then tried a decisive assault on the city, hoping to conquer it and win the war; this plan likewise failed. Brandenburg, Poland and Austria then also joined the war against the Swedes.
Charles X fell ill in early 1660 and died in February of that year. With the death of the Swedish king, one of the major obstacles to peace was gone and the Treaty of Oliva was signed with the Allies (Poland, Austria and Brandenburg). However, the Danes were not keen on peace after their recent successes and witnessing the weakness of the Swedish efforts. The Dutch retracted their blockade, but were soon convinced by the Danes to support them again. The French and English intervened for the Swedish and the situation was again teetering on the edge of a major conflict. However, the Danish statesman Hannibal Sehested negotiated a peace treaty without any direct involvement by foreign powers and the conflict was resolved with the Treaty of Copenhagen, where Sweden was forced to return Bornholm to Denmark and Trøndelag to Norway. The treaty of 1660 established political borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway which have lasted to the present day.
Background
Charles X of Sweden had concluded the earlier war with Denmark with a stunning victory by succeeding in the bold
When the Danish stalled and prolonged the fulfillment of some provisions of the earlier peace treaty the Swedish king decided to use this as a pretext to attack with a breathtaking goal: to vanquish Denmark as a sovereign state, raze the capital of Copenhagen and divide the country into four administrative regions. This would allow Sweden to control the Baltic Sea and bring in large customs revenues. However, even this ambitious goal was just to be stepping stone towards the ultimate plan of a quick conquest of Denmark so that the Swedes could wage a campaign in Europe without risking Danish interference.[4]
Events
In June 1658 it was decided that the Swedish forces would attack. On August 6, 1658 a fleet of 70 ships with 5,700 men and 18 pieces of light artillery embarked upon a journey to Denmark. Since the previous war,
Siege of Copenhagen
On August 11, 1658 Charles X and his forces reached Valby hill (current day
When the Swedish king arrived to find half the city in flames and the Danes willing to put up a fight he had a difficult decision to make, whether to press forward immediately or whether to lay siege on the city and try to starve it out. His advisers were divided on the issue, and the king ultimately decided on the latter route. The wisdom of this decision has been questioned, since the Danish defenses were in poor shape initially. However, the population of Copenhagen rallied behind Frederick III, and the walls, moats and other defensive structures of the city were quickly improved. A large number of cannons were brought into the city from ships anchored in the harbor and placed along likely attack routes. The city also had plenty of defensive materiel: 50 tonnes (110,000 lb) of lead, 4,000 muskets, and a staggering 810 kilometres (500 mi) of slow match.[8]
The Swedish siege force consisted of 11 brigades and 16 squadrons comprising 4,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 50 cannons. The Swedes took the outer defensive perimeter, built in 1625 by
Over 200 heated shot a day were hurled into the city, and several large howitzers were brought to bombard the Danish capital, including the 300-pounder "Eric Hansson", earlier used in the siege of Kraków.[12] But the citizens of Copenhagen proved to be resilient and endured the constant barrage.[13]
Kronborg captured
In a 1649 treaty the Dutch had pledged to defend Denmark against unprovoked aggression, and from a Swedish point of view it was essential to establish naval supremacy in Øresund to keep the Dutch out should they decide to intervene in the conflict. Kronborg Castle sat near the narrowest part of Øresund, a sound only four kilometres wide, which gave the castle a supreme strategic importance. Frederick III had appointed the colonel Poul Beenfeldt commander of the castle and ordered him to defend it at all costs. Should he fail in that, Kronborg was to be blown up to prevent the Swedes from using it.[14]
On August 16 the Swedes arrived at Helsingør, took shelter in the city and started bombarding the castle with artillery. The Danes returned the fire, attempting to set the city on fire. They managed to destroy a dozen houses, but the fire did not spread enough to cause a conflagration. Danish artillery rained continually on the Swedish soldiers. However, the Swedish force still managed to advance, taking the outer line of defenses. The mood in the castle darkened, and Beenfeldt's courage wavered. The Lord High Admiral of Sweden, Carl Gustaf Wrangel, resorted to subterfuge and spread the rumor that Copenhagen had fallen and the Swedish soldiers started a false celebration. Discouraged and demoralized, the Danes capitulated. The loss of Kronborg was a blow for the Danish; 77 captured cannons were quickly put to use in the siege and with the castle in Swedish hands, it was believed that the Dutch would have a difficult time to come to aid.[15]
Battle of the Sound
Despite Swedish hopes that the Dutch would not enter the conflict, they honored their 1649 treaty by sending a 45-ship relief fleet. On October 7, 1658 the Dutch fleet set sail from Vlie. Two weeks later, on October 22, it anchored northwest of Helsingør, unable to proceed for six days due to wind conditions. Wrangel suggested the Swedes should attack, but Charles X still wanted to avoid provoking the Dutch.[16]
On October 29 at eight o'clock in the morning, a shot was heard from the Dutch flagship. It was the signal to advance and smash the Swedish line. The Dutch fleet was divided into three squadrons. Vice Admiral
The engagement was confusing for both sides, and the view was soon obscured by gunpowder smoke. Many ships on both sides were badly damaged, and around 2,000 men killed or wounded. Towards the end, a squadron of Danish ships met up with Dutch and escorted them into the harbor of Copenhagen. The Swedish fleet had failed; much-needed reinforcements and supplies had reached the beleaguered Danish town. The combined Danish and Dutch fleet now had control of the seas, forcing the Swedish fleet to seek refuge in the harbor of Landskrona on the Swedish mainland.[18]
Attack on Copenhagen
After six months of siege the Dutch had re-opened the sea lanes. Charles now faced a difficult choice: if he tried to sue for peace, the conditions would have been worse than the previous peace. The other option was an all-out attack on Copenhagen, hoping that conquering the city would end the war. The number of Swedish attackers are somewhat uncertain, roughly 8,000 men, comprising 4,500 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, 1,000 sailors and a few hundred gunners. The king planned the attack meticulously, but neglected to uphold adequate secrecy; the Danes were soon fully aware of the details of the Swedish attack plan thanks to a number of deserters and spies able to move between the encampments. The Danes had 6,000 trained soldiers, and an additional 5,000 men and women from the city had also taken up weapons, bringing the number of defenders to 11,000.[19]
The Swedish forces had performed diversionary attacks on the outskirts of the city on two consecutive nights in order to tire the defenders, and at midnight on February 11, 1659, the main attack commenced. The main spearhead of the Swedish forces attacked from south of St. Jørgens lake with the King himself in overall command.[20] A hundred cannons on Slotsholmen were brought to bear on the Swedish attackers with fast and accurate fire. The two attacking divisions advanced nevertheless, led by major general Fabian von Fersen and major general Johan von Essen. They reached the outer palisades on the ice, which were quickly breached, but the Swedes were immediately stopped by holes in the ice that the Danes had cut. The bridges they had brought were not long enough after the ice moats had been widened with the help of Dutch marines. Caught on the ice, the Swedes were in the open and subject to heavy fire. Longer bridges were eventually brought, and the attack continued towards the city walls. The battle was ferocious, with the attackers desperately trying to establish a bridgehead on the walls. But in the end, the defenders were successful and the Swedes were thrown back.[21]
The northern attack force moved south towards
The victory was important for the Danes. Not only had their arch-enemy been defeated, out of the smoldering city came a stronger bourgeoisie with renewed confidence, more privileges and an improved position vis-a-vis the Danish crown. In many ways, it was a new Denmark which emerged from the assault of its capital on February 12, 1659.[24]
The Allies invade Funen
When the Swedish invaded
Thanks to the earlier preparations, a large force of 14,500 Brandenburgers under Frederick William, 10,600 Austrians led by the Italian Field Marshal
Nevertheless, the allies managed to take possession over Jutland and the Swedish commander
Meanwhile, other European powers had decided that it was not in their interest that any one power should dominate the
Battle of Nyborg
On November 11 Hans Schack and his forces boarded Dutch transport ships to take them to the east side of Funen. After some false starts, due to weather and Swedish resistance, he managed to land near Kerteminde. Major general Ernst Albrecht von Eberstein was in charge of the allied forces that had been left on Jutland, and was also moving towards Funen; landfall was made two days later without any Swedish resistance. Both Eberstein and Schack marched towards Odense, meeting up on November 12. So far, the invasion of Funen was going smoothly for the combined Danish and allied forces.[31]
The Swedish commander Sulzbach made a tactical error in not attacking either Schack or Eberstein before they could join up, even though his generals urged him to do so. Instead, he chose to withdraw to Nyborg. The Swedish king was not pleased and immediately sent Gustaf Otto Stenbock to relieve Sulzback of his command. When Stenbock arrived he found the city's defenses wanting and sent a note to the king that he could not guarantee that he would hold the city.[32]
Instead of immediately taking advantage of the situation, Eberstein and Shack quarreled over who should command the combined forces. The impasse was finally resolved by Ebestein and Shack by agreeing that they would hold command the forces every other day.[33]
The Swedish commanders had decided they must try to make a stand. A few kilometers west of Nyborg the Swedish forces of about 5,500 men stood in battle formation in the way of the advancing forces. The Swedes had a good position, with a small lake on the left flank and a forest on the right, providing good cover for a retreat to Nyborg should it be necessary. Opposing them were 9,000 men, with Eberstein in command that day. They divided into two lines, each commanded by the respective commanders. Thrice Eberstein attacked; only to be rebuffed by intensive Swedish fire and cavalry attacks. Eberstein himself was almost captured, only narrowly escaping.[34]
Even then, Eberstein refused to ask Schack for assistance in the battle. Colonel Ditlev Ahlefeldt of the allied forces would not to let pride and vanity be the downfall of the attack and pleaded with Schack to attack. Shack brandished his
The Swedes had fought bravely. Salzback had personally dispatched 8 men. But their losses were heavy, over 2,000 men had been killed, almost half the force while the allies had lost 1,900 men. The defenses at Nyborg was in no condition to withstand a siege. There was nothing for the Swedish to do but to surrender, forcing 5,000 men into captivity; Sweden had suffered a devastating defeat.[36]
The
Insurgencies
The Swedes were not popular in the regions that Sweden had gained at the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. With the new war going badly, insurgents saw their chance to rise up against the unpopular rule. Swedish response, especially in Scania, was more subtle than one might believe. An all out terror campaign would have been economically disastrous. Instead small patrols searching the woods were often employed combined with promises of carrots or sticks to the local farmers.[37]
Bohuslän and Frederikshald
The fortress of
The first Swedish attack on Frederikshald started on 14 September 1658 with a force of 1600 under Harald Stake, who falsely believed the town to be undefended. But Frederikshald was defended by two companies of the civic militia under captain Peder Olsen Normand, who had taken up a position on the Overberget hill south of the town. Detachments from the regiments of Oppland and Østfold with four cannons came to their rescue. The Swedish attackers were taken by surprise and were completely defeated the day after their arrival.[citation needed]
The second battle of Frederikshald took place in February 1659. Harald Stake was back with 4000 men, who approached the town across the frozen inlet of Svinesund and opened artillery fire from the island Sauøya. He then let his infantry attack from the west across the river Tista. Its bridge was defended by some companies under Tønne Huitfeldt and Peder Normand. The Oppland and Østfold regiments together with four cavalry squadrons remained inside the town as strategic reserves. Bjelke, having arrived some days earlier, was in command of the Norwegian forces. The Swedes initially drove the defenders back across the Tista bridge, but were halted at the bridgehead. After heavy losses the Swedes retreated to the far side of the river. The Norwegians then prepared for a renewed attack by fortifying the weak spots around Frederikshald.[citation needed]
An even greater Swedish force of 5000 soldiers (of which 3000 were cavalry) under Lars Kagg, Gustaf Horn and Harald Stake laid siege to Frederikshald in January 1660. They captured some forward defensive positions, but the sudden death of Charles X on February 13 was a probable cause for lifting the siege February 22.[38]
Trondheim
The Trøndelag province in which Trondheim is the largest city is situated in the center of Norway. As a result of the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the cession of Trøndelag had divided Norway into two parts with no land connection between the north and south. Later that year, however, Trøndelag was reconquered by Norwegian army units under their commander-in-chief, lieutenant general Jørgen Bjelke.[citation needed]
Already on September 28, 1658, a small fleet of three ships and several smaller boats landed the Norwegian forces close to Trondheim. The Swedish governor Claes Stiernsköld had 120 cavalry and 600 infantrymen under his command with the Swedish ship Gotland in the harbor of Trondheim. Two Dano-Norwegian ships attacked Gotland, thought no significant damage was inflicted on either side.[39]
A small Swedish reinforcement force arrived in Trondheim, but both food and ammunition were in short supply. On October 4, the Norwegian forces arrived at the city reinforced by 1,000 peasants from the surrounding countryside who had taken up arms. When hearing that aid was near, the population of the city revolted, but the uprising within Trondheim was quickly suppressed. Charles X ordered Lieutenant Colonel Erik Drakenberg to assemble a force in Jämtland and march towards Trondheim, but the relief was stopped by Norwegian peasants that had taken to the hills and defended the mountain passages.[39]
The Norwegian forces increased the pressure on Trondheim and red-hot shot rained down on the city daily. Despite Stiernsköld's swearing to "boil soup on his leather pants before surrendering" he was nevertheless forced to leave the city on December 11. According to the terms of the surrender, Stiernsköld and his men were allowed to leave under military honors with 2,500 men presenting arms.[40]
Bornholm
On April 29, 1658 Bornholm was presented with its new governor: Colonel Printzensköld, who arrived with his family and 120 soldiers. Printzensköld soon enacted a number of unpopular taxes and many of the island's young men were conscripted. In addition, plague had hit the island hard 4 years earlier, killing 5,000 of the population of 13,000. The island was seething with anger and resentment, and after the Swedish invasion of Denmark Frederick III sent letters to leading men in the community, urging them to revolt. They wasted no time, and Printzensköld was shot dead during an inspection tour on December 8, 1659. The remaining Swedes, mostly Scanians who had little reason to be loyal to the Swedish King, surrendered. The Swedish navy was otherwise occupied and could offer no relief. Bornholm was again under Danish control.[41]
Scania
One of Frederick III's bodyguards, Statius, traveled to Scania to organize the peasants into Snapphane units and instigate anti-Swedish sentiment. In Malmö, a cabal of rich bourgeoisie, led by Bartholomaeus Mikkelsen, planned a revolt. The conspiracy tried to recruit one of Malmös two mayors, Efvert Wiltfang, but he would not commit himself to the uprising, even though he said he would support Frederick III. At the end of December, the Danes embarked on a foray into Scania, but were foiled by bad weather and poor navigation. Meanwhile, the Swedish authorities had become aware of the plot and the main leaders were arrested, among them Mikkelsen and Wildfang, and the conspirators were sentenced to death. On December 22, 1659 Mikkelsen and two others were beheaded, but in an attempt to placate the Scanian people the execution of Wiltfang and 10 others was stayed. The uprising had been averted, but rebels and insurgents continued to operate in the countryside.[42]
Peace and aftermath
Charles X fell ill in the beginning of 1660 and died of pneumonia on the night of February 13, 1660.[43] With the death of the Swedish king, one of the major obstacles to peace was out of the way; in April the Treaty of Oliva was signed with the Allies (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria and Brandenburg). However, the Danes were not keen on peace after their recent success. After further concessions, the Dutch released the blockade on Landskrona, allowing the Swedish fleet out in the Øresund strait and blockade Copenhagen. Danish diplomacy soon got the Dutch back on their side again, and real war between Sweden and the Dutch Republic seemed imminent. The French and English intervened in favor of the Swedes and the situation was again teetering on the edge of a major conflict.[44]
The Danish statesman
In the Treaty of Roskilde two years earlier, Denmark-Norway had been forced to cede the Danish provinces of Scania, Halland, Blekinge, the island of Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces Trøndelag and Bohuslän. The Treaty of Copenhagen reaffirmed the Swedish rule over Scania, Halland, Blekinge, and Bohuslän, while Bornholm and Trøndelag were returned. It was a significant victory for Denmark-Norway, but it did not result in a reversal of the costly earlier peace.[46] The treaty of 1660 established political borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway which have lasted to the present.[45]
The bold
Notes
- ^ Established present day political borders between Denmark and Sweden.
- ^ a b Frost, p. 180.
- ^ Frost, pp. 180-181
- ^ Englund, p. 601
- ^ Englund, p. 602
- ^ Isacson, pp. 187-188
- ^ Isacson, p. 191
- ^ Isacson, pp. 192–196
- ^ Isacson, p. 197
- ^ This sally would later become known as "Generaludfaldet" in Danish history.
- ^ Isacson, pp. 198–199
- ^ Englund, p. 615
- ^ Isacson, p. 203
- ^ Isacson, p.204
- ^ Isacsson, pp.204–207
- ^ Frost, p. 182; Isacson, p. 208
- ^ Isacson, pp. 208–212
- ^ Isacson, pp. 212–215
- ^ Isacson, p. 216–217
- ^ Isacson, p. 218–220
- ^ Isacson, p. 223–225
- ^ Isacson, p. 228
- ^ Isacson, p. 229
- ^ Isacson, p. 229; Englund, p. 610
- ^ Isacson, p. 233
- ^ Englund, p. 616
- ^ Englund, p.617
- ^ a b Frost, p. 182
- ^ Isacsson, pp. 242–43
- ^ Isacsson, pp. 237–238
- ^ Isacson, p. 248
- ^ Isacson, p. 249
- ^ Isacson, p. 250
- ^ Isacson, p. 251
- ^ Isacson, p. 252
- ^ Isacson, pp. 252–253
- ^ Englund, pp. 697–700
- ^ Bryhn 1978, pp.11-12
- ^ a b Isacson, p. 256
- ^ Isacson, p. 258
- ^ Isacsson, pp. 258–260
- ^ Isacson, pp. 260–263
- ^ Henrikson, p. 539
- ^ Henrikson, pp. 541–542
- ^ a b Henrikson, p. 542
- ^ Frost, p. 183
- ^ Frost, pp. 182–183
- ^ Frost, pp. 193-195
References
- ISBN 91-7486-999-X.
- Frost, Robert I. (2000). The Northern Wars (1558-1721). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-06429-4.
- Henrikson, Alf (1963). Svensk Historia (in Swedish). Albert Bonniers Förlag. ISBN 91-0-010551-1.
- Isacson, Claes-Göran (2002). Karl X Gustavs krig (in Swedish). Lund: Historiska Media. ISBN 91-85057-25-8.
- Solum, Ingebrigt (1978). Hvem forsvarte byen og festningen - Trekk fra Haldens og Fredrikstens krigshistorie. Halden: Sats og Trykk - E. Sem A.S.
Further reading
- (in Swedish) Ulf Sundberg (1998) Svenska krig 1521-1814. Stockholm.
- (in Swedish) Holm, Torsten (1927) Översikt över Sveriges krig under 1600-talets senare hälft. Stockholm.
- (in Danish) Kjærulff Hellesen, Jette & Tuxen, Ole (1988) Historisk atlas. Köpenhamn.
- (in Swedish) Carl X Gustaf och Danmark. (1965) Arne Stade (editor). Kristianstad.
- (in Swedish) Weibull, Martin & Höjer, Magnus (1881) Sveriges storhetstid, från år 1611 till år 1718. Stockholm.