Death of Alexander the Great
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Early rule
Conquest of the Persian Empire
Expedition into India
Death and legacy
Cultural impact
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The death of Alexander the Great and subsequent related events have been the subjects of debates. According to a Babylonian astronomical diary, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon between the evening of 10 June and the evening of 11 June 323 BC,[1] at the age of 32.
Macedonians and local residents wept at the news of the death, while Achaemenid subjects were forced to shave their heads.[2] The mother of Darius III, Sisygambis, having learned of Alexander's death, became depressed and killed herself later.[3] Historians vary in their assessments of primary sources about Alexander's death, which has resulted in different views about its cause and circumstances.
Background
In February 323 BC, Alexander ordered his armies to prepare for the march to Babylon.[4] According to Arrian, after crossing the Tigris Alexander was met by Chaldeans, who advised him not to enter the city because their deity Bel had warned them that to do so at that time would be fatal for Alexander.[5] The Chaldeans also warned Alexander against marching westwards as he would then look to the setting sun, a symbol of decline.[5] It was suggested that he enter Babylon via the Royal Gate, in the western wall, where he would face to the east. Alexander followed this advice, but the route turned out to be unfavorable because of swampy terrain.[5] According to Jona Lendering, "it seems that in May 323" the Babylonian astrologers tried to avert the misfortune by substituting Alexander with an ordinary person on the Babylonian throne, who would take the brunt of the omen.[4] The Greeks, however, did not understand that ritual.[4]
Prophecy of Calanus
Causes
According to historical accounts, Alexander's body began to decompose six days after his death. Proposed causes of Alexander's death include alcoholic liver disease, fever, and
Other popular theories contend that Alexander either died of malaria or was poisoned. Other retrodiagnoses include noninfectious diseases as well.[18] According to author Andrew Chugg, there is evidence Alexander died of malaria, having contracted it two weeks before the onset of illness while sailing in the marshes to inspect flood defences. Chugg based his argument[19] on the Ephemerides (Journal) compiled by Alexander's secretary, Eumenes of Cardia.[20] Chugg also showed in a paper in the Ancient History Bulletin[21] that the Ephemerides are probably authentic. Chugg further noted that Arrian states that Alexander "No longer had any rest from the fever" halfway through his fatal illness.[22] This is evidence that the fever had initially been intermittent, which is the signature fever curve of Plasmodium falciparum (the expected malarial parasite, given Alexander's travel history and the severity of the illness), thus enhancing the likelihood of malaria.[23] The malaria version was also supported by Paul Cartledge.[citation needed]
Throughout the centuries suspicions of possible poisoning have fallen on a number of alleged perpetrators, including one of Alexander's wives, his generals, his illegitimate half-brother or the royal cup-bearer.
In Alexander the Great: The Death of a God,
Epidemiologist John Marr and
Other causes that have been put forward include
Another theory moves away from disease and hypothesizes that Alexander's death was related to a congenital
Some have speculated that he suffered from
Body preservation
One ancient account reports that the planning and construction of an appropriate funerary cart to convey the body out from Babylon took two years from the time of Alexander's death.
Egyptian and
Resting place
On its way back to
See also
Notes
- Livius.org. Retrieved Nov 5, 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-4165-9280-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-9556790-0-1.
- ^ Livius.org. Archived from the originalon August 2, 2016. Retrieved Aug 22, 2011.
- ^ Livius.org. Archived from the originalon April 27, 2016. Retrieved Aug 22, 2011.
- ISBN 9780713905007.
- ^ Yādnāmah-ʾi Panjumīn Kungrih-ʾi Bayn al-Milalī-i Bāstānshināsī va Hunar-i Īrān. Ministry of Culture and Arts, Iran. Vizārat-i Farhang va Hunar. 1972. p. 224.
- ISBN 9780415245432.
- ISBN 9781591024842.
- ISBN 9780521250283.
- ISBN 9789966082008.
- ^ a b National Geographic, Volume 133. 1968. p. 64.
- ISBN 9780715622148.
- ^ PMID 15081504.
- ^ a b c d "INTESTINAL BUG LIKELY KILLED ALEXANDER THE GREAT". University of Maryland Medical Center. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ^ a b c d Carlos G. Musso. "MEGAS ALEXANDROS (Alexander The Great ): His Death Remains a Medical Mystery". Humane Medicine Health Care. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ^ "A Stone at the Siege of Cyropolis and the Death of Alexander the Great".
- ^ PMID 15338538.
- ^ The Quest for the Tomb of Alexander the Great, A. M. Chugg, AMC Publications, 3rd Edition, January 2020, Chapter 1 (pages28-45).
- ^ Aelian, Varia Historia 3.23 (a recognised fragment of the Ephemerides which is attributed to Eumenes in Aelian's text).
- ^ A. M. Chugg, "The Journal of Alexander the Great", Ancient History Bulletin 19.3–4 (2005) 155–175.
- ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandrou 7.25.4.
- ^ Robert Sallares, Malaria and Rome, OUP 2002, p.11.
- ^ The Independent on Sunday. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ^ John Atkinson; Elsie Truter; Etienne Truter (Jan 1, 2009). "Alexander's last days: malaria and mind games?". Acta Classica. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ^ Justin. "Preface". Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. Translated by Watson, John.
- ^ S2CID 20804486.
- ^ Bennett-Smith, Meredith (14 January 2014). "Was Alexander The Great Poisoned By Toxic Wine?". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
- ^ Wolfe, Sarah (13 January 2014). "Alexander the Great was killed by toxic wine, says scientist". Public Radio International. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
- ^ "Nature-Alexander the Great". GIDEON. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ^ PMID 15338538.
- PMID 9252868.
- ^ Owen Jarus (4 February 2019). "Why Alexander the Great May Have Been Declared Dead Prematurely (It's Pretty Gruesome)". Live Science. Retrieved Nov 3, 2021.
- ^ Ashrafian pg. 138
- ^ Ashrafian, pg.139
- ^ a b Ashrafian, pg. 140
- ^ George K. York, David A. Steinberg, "Commentary. The Diseases of Alexander the Great", Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, Vol. 13, 2004, pg. 154
- ^ Meyer, Jean-Arcady (2023). The Rise and Fall of the Library of Alexandria. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 356.
- ^ Emerging Infectious Diseases Volume 9, Issues 7–12, Part 2. Rutgers University. 2003. p. 1600.
- ^ Hall, Katherine (2018). "Did Alexander the Great Die from Guillain-Barré Syndrome?". Ancient History Bulletin. 32 (3–4).
- ^ a b c d e f Robert S. Bianchi. "Hunting Alexander's Tomb". Archaeology.org. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
- ISBN 0-521-81826-5.
- ^ Madden, Richard (1851). The Shrines and Sepulchres of the Old and New World. Newby. pp. 137–138.
- ^ "Alexander's death riddle is 'solved'". BBC. June 11, 1998. Retrieved Aug 21, 2011.
References
- Hutan Ashrafian, "The Death of Alexander the Great — A Spinal Twist of Fate", Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, Vol. 13, 2004
Further reading
- ISBN 978-1-84529-156-3.
- Everitt, Anthony (2021). Alexander the Great: His Life and His Mysterious Death. New York City: Random House. ISBN 978-0425286531.
- Grant, David (2022). The Last Will and Testament of Alexander the Great: The Truth Behind the Death That Changed the Graeco-persian World Forever. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-1526771261.