Death of Cleopatra

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the death of Cleopatra VII in August 30 BC. For the painting by Juan Luna, see The Death of Cleopatra.

Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal diadem, consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[1][2]
Part of a series on
Cleopatra VII

Octavian forced her to kill herself in a manner of her choosing. The location of Cleopatra's tomb is unknown. It was recorded that Octavian allowed for her and her husband, the Roman politician and general Mark Antony, who stabbed himself with a sword, to be buried together properly
.

Cleopatra's death effectively ended

Ptolemy XV), rival heir of Julius Caesar, killed in Egypt but spared her children with Antony and brought them to Rome. Cleopatra's death marked the end of the Hellenistic period and Ptolemaic rule of Egypt, as well as the beginning of Roman Egypt, which became a province of the Roman Empire.[note 1]

The death of Cleopatra has been depicted in

Orientalist painting
, and cinema.

Prelude

Further information:
Final War of the Roman Republic, Battle of Actium, Early life of Cleopatra, and Reign of Cleopatra
Antioch
mint in 36 BC
Ancient Roman fresco in the Pompeian Third Style possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii, Italy, mid-1st century AD[3]

Following the

Ptolemaic co-ruler Caesarion.[14][15][16] After Caesar's death she developed a relationship with Antony.[9][17][18]

With encouragement from Cleopatra, Antony officially divorced Octavian's sister

declare war on Cleopatra.[26][27][28]

Following their defeat in the naval

Pelousion near the eastern borders of Ptolemaic Egypt, his officer Cornelius Gallus marched from Cyrene and captured Paraitonion to the west.[34][35] Although Antony scored a small victory over Octavian's worn out troops as they approached Alexandria's hippodrome on 1 August, 30 BC, his naval fleet and cavalry defected soon afterward.[34][31][36]

Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra

Further information: Reign of Cleopatra
medallion of Cleopatra dated to the Hellenistic period
of antiquity

With Octavian's forces in Alexandria, Cleopatra withdrew to her tomb

embalm Antony's body before she was forcefully escorted to the palace, where she eventually met with Octavian, who had also detained three of her children: Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus.[41][45][46]

As related by

romanized: ou thriambéusomai), but Octavian only gave the cryptic answer that her life would be spared.[47][48] He did not offer her any specific details about his plans for Egypt or her royal family.[49] After a spy informed Cleopatra that Octavian intended to bring her back to Rome to be paraded as a prisoner in his triumph, she avoided this humiliation by taking her own life.[31][50][51][note 5] Plutarch elaborates on how Cleopatra approached her suicide in an almost ritual process that involved bathing and then having a fine meal including figs brought to her in a basket.[52][53][54]

Cleopatra and Octavian, a painting by Louis Gauffier, 1787

Plutarch writes that Octavian ordered his freedman

snake charmers of the Psylli tribe of Ancient Libya to attempt an oral venom extraction and revival of Cleopatra, but their efforts failed.[58][59] Although Octavian was outraged by these events and "was robbed of the full splendor of his victory" according to Cassius Dio,[59] he had Cleopatra interred next to Antony in their tomb as requested, and also gave Iras and Charmion proper burials.[52][60][54]

Date of death

Further information:
Epoch (reference date), and Regnal year
A hemiobol coin of Cleopatra VII struck in 31 BC (the year she and Mark Antony lost the Battle of Actium), showing her wearing the royal diadem

There are no surviving records indicating an exact date of Cleopatra's death.[61] Theodore Cressy Skeat deduced that she died on 12 August 30 BC, on the basis of contemporary records of fixed events along with cross examination of historical sources.[61] His supposition is supported by Stanley M. Burstein,[41] James Grout,[58] and Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, although the latter are more cautious by qualifying it was circa 12 August.[62] An alternative date of 10 August 30 BC is supported by scholars such as Duane W. Roller,[50] Joann Fletcher,[63] and Jaynie Anderson.[53]

Cause of death

Further information: Roman historiography
Ptolemaic rulers,[65] and an Isis knot (corresponding to Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis).[66]

Cleopatra's personal physician Olympos,

asp bite or Egyptian cobra.[67][note 7] Strabo, who provides the earliest known historical account, believed that Cleopatra committed suicide either by asp bite or poisonous ointment.[53][68][69][note 8] Plutarch mentions the tale of the asp brought to her in a basket of figs, although he offers other alternatives for her cause of death, such as use of a hollow implement (Greek: κνηστίς, romanized: knestis), perhaps a hairpin,[54] which she used to scratch open the skin and introduce the toxin.[67] According to Cassius Dio small puncture wounds were found on Cleopatra's arm, but he echoed the claim by Plutarch that nobody knew the true cause of her death.[70][67][58] Dio mentioned the claim of the asp and even suggested use of a needle (Greek: βελόνη, romanized: belone), possibly from a hairpin, which would seem to corroborate Plutarch's account.[70][67][58] Other contemporary historians such as Florus and Velleius Paterculus supported the asp bite version.[71][72] Roman physician Galen mentioned the asp story,[72] but he advances a version where Cleopatra bit her own arm and introduced venom brought in a container.[73] Suetonius relayed the story of the asp but expressed doubt about its validity.[72]

The cause of Cleopatra's death was rarely mentioned and debated in early modern scholarship.[74] The encyclopedic writer Thomas Browne, in his 1646 Pseudodoxia Epidemica, explained that it was uncertain how Cleopatra had died and that artistic depictions of small snakes biting her failed to accurately show the large size of the "land asp".[75] In 1717 the anatomist Giovanni Battista Morgagni maintained a brief, recreational literary correspondence with the papal physician Giovanni Maria Lancisi about the queen's cause of death, as referenced in Morgagni's 1761 De Sedibus and published as a series of epistles in his 1764 Opera omnia.[76] Morgagni argued that Cleopatra was likely killed by a snakebite and contested Lancisi's suggestion that consumption of venom was more plausible, noting that no ancient Greco-Roman authors had mentioned her drinking it. Lancisi rebutted by arguing that accounts offered by Roman poets were unreliable since they often exaggerated events.[77] In his literary memoirs published in 1777, the physician Jean Goulin supported Morgagni's argument of the snakebite being the most probable cause of death.[78]

Cleopatra, by Benedetto Gennari, 1674–1675

Modern scholars have also cast doubt on the story of the

Mithridates VI of Pontus.[83]

According to Gregory Tsoucalas, lecturer in the history of medicine at the Democritus University of Thrace, and Markos Sgantzos, Associate Professor of Anatomy at the University of Thessaly, evidence suggests that Octavian ordered the poisoning of Cleopatra.

Patricia Southern speculates that Octavian could have possibly allowed Cleopatra to choose the manner of her death instead of executing her.[39] Grout writes that Octavian may have wanted to avoid the sort of sympathy espoused for Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe IV when she was paraded in chains but spared during Julius Caesar's triumph.[58] Octavian perhaps permitted Cleopatra to die by her own hand after considering the political issues that could have risen from the murder of a queen whose statue had been erected in the Temple of Venus Genetrix by his adoptive father.[58] An alternative theory emerged in 1888 when Ambroise Viaud Grand Marais suggested Cleopatra had died of carbon monoxide poisoning.[87]

Aftermath

Further information: History of the Roman Empire and History of Egypt
This mid-1st century BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, probably an immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.[88][89]

During her final days, Cleopatra had Caesarion sent away to Upper Egypt and perhaps planned for him to eventually flee to Nubia, Ethiopia, or India in exile.[72][90][35] Caesarion reigned as Ptolemy XV for only eighteen days, when he was captured and executed on Octavian's orders on 29 August, 30 BC.[91][92] This was done following the advice of the Alexandrian Greek philosopher Arius Didymus, who cautioned that two rival heirs to Julius Caesar could not share the world together.[91][92]

The deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion marked the end of both the Ptolemaic dynasty's rule of Egypt and the Hellenistic period,[93][94][95] which had lasted since the reign of Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).[note 1] Egypt became a province of the newly established Roman Empire, with Octavian renamed in 27 BC as Augustus, the first Roman emperor,[93][94][95][note 10] ruling with the facade of a Roman Republic.[96] Roller affirms that Caesarion's alleged reign was "essentially a fiction" invented by chroniclers of Egypt, such as Clement of Alexandria in his Stromata, to explain the gap between Cleopatra's death and the induction of Egypt as a Roman province directly ruled by Octavian as pharaoh of Egypt.[97][note 11] Antony's three children with Cleopatra were spared and sent to Rome; their daughter Cleopatra Selene II eventually married Juba II of Mauretania.[46][98][99]

Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra

Further information: Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra
Left: A Roman marble bust of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, late 1st century AD, Vatican Museums
Right: Most likely a posthumously painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal diadem and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, Italy, 1st century AD[3][100][note 12]

The site of the

Kathleen Martinez and Zahi Hawass have discovered six burial chambers and their artifacts, including forty coins minted by Cleopatra and Antony as well as an alabaster bust depicting Cleopatra.[103] An alabaster mask with a cleft chin discovered at the site bears a resemblance to ancient portraits of Mark Antony.[104] In an early 1st century AD painting from the House of Giuseppe II in Pompeii, a rear wall depicted with a set of double doors positioned very high above the scene of a woman wearing a royal diadem and committing suicide among her attendants suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.[1]

Depictions in art and literature

Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra and Cleopatra § Cultural depictions

Hellenistic and Roman eras

Further information:
Ancient Egyptian art, and Portraiture in ancient Egypt
Cleopatra committing suicide, fresco from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, 1st century AD

In his triumphant procession at Rome in 29 BC, Octavian paraded Cleopatra's children Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II, but he also presented an effigy to the crowd depicting Cleopatra with an asp clinging to her.

Egyptian goddess Isis.[109] Cleopatra's association with Isis continued in Egypt after her death, at least until 373 AD, when the Egyptian scribe Petesenufe compiled a book of Isis and explained how he decorated images of Cleopatra with gold.[110]

A mid-1st century BC Roman wall painting from Pompeii most likely depicting Cleopatra with her infant son Caesarion was walled off by its owner around 30 BC, perhaps in reaction to Octavian's proscription against images depicting Caesarion, the rival heir of Julius Caesar.[88][89] Although statues of Mark Antony were torn down, those of Cleopatra were generally spared this program of destruction, including the one erected by Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar.[111][112] An early 1st century AD painting from Pompeii most likely depicts the suicide of Cleopatra, accompanied by attendants and even her son Caesarion wearing a royal diadem like his mother, although an asp is absent from the scene, perhaps reflecting the different causes of death provided in Roman historiography.[113][2][note 13] Some posthumous images of Cleopatra meant for common consumption were perhaps less flattering. A Roman terracotta lamp in the British Museum made c. 40–80 AD contains a relief depicting a nude woman with the queen's distinct hairstyle. In it she holds a palm branch, rides an Egyptian crocodile and sits on a large phallus in a Nilotic scene.[114]

A

Octavia Minor, Mark Antony and his alleged ancestor Anton. The seated woman identified as Cleopatra grasps and pulls Antony toward her while a serpent rises from between her legs and the Greek god of love Eros (Cupid) floats above them.[116]

The story of the asp was widely accepted among the

Roman literature,[119] Horace depicted Cleopatra's suicide as a bold act of defiance and liberation.[120] Virgil established the view of Cleopatra as a figure of epic melodrama and romance.[121]

Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque periods

Left: a miniature illustration by the Boucicaut Master in the 1409 AD illuminated manuscript of Giovanni Boccaccio's Des cas de nobles hommes et femmes, depicting Mark Antony and Cleopatra in their tomb, with an asp slithering near her chest and a bloody sword impaling his[122]
Right: The Banquet of Cleopatra and Antony, a woodcut from a 1479 version of Giovanni Boccaccio's De Mulieribus Claris published in Ulm, Germany[123]

The story of Cleopatra's suicide by snakebite was often depicted in Medieval and Renaissance art. The artist known as the Boucicaut Master, in a 1409 AD miniature for an illuminated manuscript of Des cas de nobles hommes et femmes by the 14th-century AD poet Giovanni Boccaccio, depicted Cleopatra and Antony lying together in a Gothic-style tomb, with a snake near Cleopatra's chest and a bloody sword driven through Antony's chest.[122] Illustrated versions of Boccaccio's written works, including images of Cleopatra and Antony committing suicide, first appeared in France during the Quattrocento (i.e. 15th century AD), authored by Laurent de Premierfait.[124] Woodcut illustrations of Boccaccio's De Mulieribus Claris published at Ulm in 1479 and Augsburg in 1541 depict Cleopatra's discovery of Antony's body after his suicide by stabbing.[125]

Like much of Medieval literature about Cleopatra, Boccaccio's writings are largely negative and misogynistic. The 14th-century poet Geoffrey Chaucer counters these depictions, offering a positive view of Cleopatra.[126] Chaucer began his hagiography on virtuous pagan women with the life of Cleopatra, depicted in a satirical fashion as a queen engaged in courtly love with her knight Mark Antony.[127][128] His depiction of her suicide included a pit of serpents rather than the Roman tale of the asps.[129][130]

Cleopatra, by Michelangelo, c. 1535

Free-standing nude depictions of Cleopatra poisoned by an asp became common during the

Greco-Roman Sleeping Ariadne, which at the time was thought to depict Cleopatra.[133][134] Works of the French Renaissance also depict Cleopatra slumbering while pressing a snake to her breast.[135] Michelangelo created a black-chalk drawing of Cleopatra's suicide by asp bite around 1535.[136] The 17th-century Baroque painter Guido Reni depicted Cleopatra's death by asp bite, albeit with a snake that is tiny compared to a real Egyptian cobra.[137]

The Sleeping Ariadne, acquired by Pope Julius II in 1512, inspired three poems of Renaissance literature eventually carved into the pilaster frame of the statue.[138] The first of these was published by Baldassare Castiglione, which became widely circulated by 1530 and inspired the other two poems by Bernardino Baldi and Agostino Favoriti.[107] Castiglione's poem depicted Cleopatra as a tragic but honorable ruler in a doomed love affair with Antony, a queen whose death freed her from the ignominy of Roman imprisonment.[139] The Sleeping Ariadne was also commonly depicted in paintings, including those by Titian, Artemisia Gentileschi, and Edward Burne-Jones.[134] These works tended to eroticize the moment of Cleopatra's death, while Victorian era artists found the unconscious, recumbent female form as an acceptable outlet for their eroticism.[134]

The Death of Cleopatra, by Michele Tosini, c. 1560 (left); Cleopatra, by Guido Reni, 1638–39[137] (center); The Death of Cleopatra, by Alessandro Turchi, c. 1640 (right).

Cleopatra's death features in several works of the performing arts. In the 1607

Devil's Charter by Barnabe Barnes, a snake handler brings two asps to Cleopatra and allows them to bite both her breasts in a racy manner.[136] In William Shakespeare's 1609 play Antony and Cleopatra the snake represents both death as well as a lover who Cleopatra desires, yielding to his pinch.[136] Shakespeare relied on Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch for crafting his play, which can be viewed as both a comedy and a tragedy.[140] The play involved use of multiple asps, as well as the character of Charmion who killed herself by asp bite after Cleopatra.[141]

Modern era

In modern literature,

Dollabella informs her that Caesar intends to march her in his triumph in Rome, she commits suicide with Charmion by asp bite, before being carried off to be buried with Antony.[145]

The Death of Cleopatra, by Edmonia Lewis, 1876[146]

The character of Cleopatra had appeared in forty-three films by the end of the 20th century.

Fox Film Corporation posed her in front of Cleopatra's alleged mummified remains in a museum, where she announced that she was the reincarnation of Cleopatra, having received hieroglyphic tributary offerings from a reincarnated servant.[150] Fox Studios also had Bara dress as a leader of the occult and associated her with perverse death and sexuality.[150] The 1963 Hollywood film Cleopatra by Joseph L. Mankiewicz contains a dramatic scene where the Egyptian queen, portrayed by Elizabeth Taylor, is engaged in a slap-fight with her lover Mark Antony, portrayed by Richard Burton, inside the tomb where they would be interred.[151]

In other modern visual arts, Cleopatra has been depicted in mediums such as paintings and sculptures. In her 1876 sculpture The Death of Cleopatra, African American artist

Orientalist paintings by Rixens and others influenced the hybrid Ancient-Egyptian and Middle-Eastern decor found in the J. Gordon Edwards' film Cleopatra starring Bara, seen standing on a Persian carpet but with Egyptian wall paintings in the background.[155]

Paintings

Prints

Statues, busts and other sculptures

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could any Greek age, now that the Romans
    were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation."
  2. ^ Roller (2010, p. 100) says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. Burstein (2004, pp. xxii, 29) says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and in defiance of Octavian he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by Roller (2010, p. 100).
  3. ^ For further validation, see Southern 2009, pp. 149–150 and Grout 2017.
  4. ^ The tomb had been built during her lifetime, in keeping with ancient Egyptian practice.
  5. ^ For further validation, see Jones 2006, p. 180 and Grout 2017.
  6. ^ For primary source translations of Plutarch's account of the deaths of Charmion and Iras, see Plutarch 1920, p. 85, Grout 2017, and Jones 2006, pp. 193–194.
  7. ^ Historian Duane W. Roller, in Roller 2010, pp. 148–149, provides a thorough explanation of the various claims about Cleopatra's cause of death in Roman historiography and primary sources. He states unequivocally that Olympos did not describe any cause of death, only that Plutarch discussed the cause of death only after he was finished relaying the report by Olympos, introducing the tale of the asp bite in such a way that he expected his readers to have already had foreknowledge of it.
  8. ^ For further validation, see Roller 2010, p. 148.
  9. Demetrios of Phaleron, adviser to Ptolemy I Soter, died from an asp bite, see Roller 2010
    , p. 149.
  10. ^ For further validation, see Jones 2006, pp. 197–198.
  11. governors of Egypt, the first of whom was Cornelius Gallus. For further information, see Southern 2014, p. 185 and Roller 2010
    , p. 151.
  12. Egyptian motifs
    which has been identified as Cleopatra."
  13. ^ For further information about the painting in the House of Giuseppe II (i.e. Joseph II) at Pompeii and the possible identification of Cleopatra as one of the figures, see Pucci 2011, pp. 206–207, footnote 27
  14. Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the hairstyle and facial features of the woman in the sculpture, her apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around a vase or column at the base. As explained by Roller 2010, p. 175, the Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st century AD Roman copy of a 1st century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles
    .
  15. Macedonia in northern Greece, see Fletcher 2008, pp. 1, 23 and Southern 2009
    , p. 43.

References

Citations

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  101. ^ BBC News.
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  103. ^ Remezcla.
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  143. ^ DeMaria Smith (2011), p. 165.
  144. ^ Martin (2014), pp. 16–17.
  145. ^ Martin (2014), p. 17.
  146. ^ a b Pucci (2011), pp. 201–202.
  147. ^ Pucci (2011), p. 195.
  148. ^ Jones (2006), p. 325.
  149. ^ Pucci (2011), pp. 203–204.
  150. ^ a b Wyke & Montserrat (2011), p. 178.
  151. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), p. 190.
  152. ^ Smithsonian American Art Museum.
  153. ^ The Art Tribune.
  154. ^ Manninen (2015), p. 221, footnote 11.
  155. ^ Sully (2010), p. 53.
  156. ^ Walters Art Museum.

Bibliography

Online sources

Printed sources

Further reading

External links

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