Debate

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
13th-century illustration of a Jew and a Christian debating in a work by the Jewish convert Petrus Alphonsi

Debate is a process that involves formal discourse, discussion, and oral addresses on a particular topic or collection of topics, often with a moderator and an audience. In a debate, arguments are put forward for common opposing viewpoints. Debates have historically occurred in public meetings, academic institutions, debate halls, coffeehouses, competitions, and legislative assemblies.[1] Debates have also been conducted for educational and recreational purposes,[2] usually associated with educational establishments and debating societies.[3] These debates emphasized logical consistency, factual accuracy, and emotional appeal to an audience.[4][5] Modern forms of competitive debate also include rules for participants to discuss and decide upon the framework of the debates (how the debate will be judged).[5]

History

A Debate among Scholars, Razmnama illustration

Debating in various forms has a long history that can be traced back to the philosophical and political debates of

Athenian Democracy or the Shastrartha in Ancient India. Modern forms of debating and the establishment of debating societies in the Western world occurred during the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century.[6]

In Imperial China's Han Dynasty, debate amongst scholars was most famously portrayed in a series of debates known as the Discourses on Salt and Iron, held in 81 BCE. Named for its two most famous debates, by Emperor Zhao, these debates focused on the reformation of the economic policies implemented by Zhao's predecessor, Emperor Wu.[7]

Emergence of debating societies

Debate Tonight: Whether a man's wig should be dressed with honey or mustard!, a 1795 cartoon satirizing the content of debates

The Phil, founded in 1683. Debating societies emerged in London in the early 18th century, and soon became a prominent societal fixture of life in London.[8] Although debating societies had existed in London since at least 1740, they were exclusive and secretive societies. However, by the mid-18th century, London fostered a vibrant debating society culture, largely due to increased membership from London's growing middle class.[8] The topics being debated covered a broad spectrum of topics, while the debating societies allowed participants from all genders and social backgrounds, making them an example of the enlarged public sphere of the Age of Enlightenment.[9] Debating societies were a phenomenon associated with the simultaneous rise of the public sphere.[10] A sphere of discussion, separate from traditional authorities and accessible to all people, acted as a platform for criticism and the development of new ideas and philosophy.[11]

John Henley, a clergyman,[12] founded an Oratory in 1726 with the principal aim of "reforming the manner in which public presentations should be performed."[13] He extensively utilized the print industry to advertise the events of his Oratory, establishing it as a ubiquitous part of the London public sphere. Henley also played a crucial role in shaping the space of the debating club; he introduced two platforms to his room in the Newport district of London for the staging of debates and organized the entrances to facilitate the collection of admission fees. These modifications were further carried out when Henley relocated his enterprise to Lincoln's Inn Fields. With the public now willing to pay for entertainment, Henley capitalized on the growing commercialization of British society.[14] By the 1770s, debating societies had become a firmly established part of London society.[15]

The year 1785 was pivotal: The

Morning Chronicle announced on March 26:[16]

The Rage for public debate now shows itself in all quarters of the metropolis. Exclusive of the oratorical assemblies at Carlisle House, Freemasons Hall, the Forum, Spring Gardens, the Casino, the Mitre Tavern, and other polite places of debating rendezvous, we hear that new Schools of Eloquence are preparing to be opened in St. Giles, Clare-Market, Hockley in the Hole, Whitechapel, Rag-Fair, Duke's Place, Billingsgate, and the Back of the Borough.

Many subjects were debated in the London Debating Societies of the 18th century. This is a cover to a panegyric on marriage and family life, c. 1780.

In 1780, 35 distinct societies advertised and hosted debates accommodating between 650 and 1200 individuals.[17] The topic for debate was introduced by a president or moderator, who then moderated the discussion. Speakers were allotted specific time frames to present their arguments, and, following the debate, a vote was conducted to reach a conclusion or to adjourn the topic for further deliberation.[18] Speakers were prohibited from slandering or insulting other speakers or straying from the designated topic, underscoring the premium placed on politeness by late 18th-century debaters.[15]

Student debating societies

American Whig Society at the university was co-founded in 1765 by future revolutionary James Madison.[19]

The Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies were formed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1795 and are still active. They are considered the first of the post-revolutionary debating societies.[citation needed]

Cambridge Union Society
(c. 1887)

The first student debating society in Great Britain was the

Cambridge Union Society was founded in 1815 and claims to be the oldest continually operating debating society in the World.[20]

Over the next few decades, similar debate societies emerged at several other prominent universities, including the Oxford Union, the Yale Political Union, and the Conférence Olivaint.

Political debate

Parliamentary debate

In parliaments and other legislatures, members debate proposals regarding legislation before voting on resolutions, which become laws. Debates are usually conducted by proposing a law, or changes to a law known as amendments. Parliamentary-style debates are structured with two opposing sides, the Leader of Opposition (LO) and the Government (GOV).[21] After each side is allowed to speak once, members are permitted to give reply speeches to the opposing side's points. Afterward, members of the parliament discuss the proposal before casting their votes for or against such a law.[21] The first example of parliamentary debate took place in Liverpool in 1882.[22]

Although Britain invented the system of parliamentary debate, it is not the only modern country to use a parliamentary system. Countries today that use a parliamentary system and parliamentary debate include Canada, Italy, Japan, Latvia, the Netherlands, and New Zealand.[23]

Participatory democracy

Participatory Democracy is a form of government in which citizens participate individually and directly in political decisions, which may be achieved through public debate.

In France, the procedure for public debate was defined in the Law of February 2, 1995 relating to the re-enforcement of protection of the environment (commonly known as the Barnier Law, after the late minister for the environment).[24]

Emergency debating

In some countries (e.g., Canada[25] and the UK[26]), members of parliament may request debates on urgent matters of national importance. According to Standing Order rules, an emergency debate may take precedence on Friday, or if the Speaker decides, at the next sitting within normal hours. The Speaker also determines when any other regular business, superseded by the emergency debate, is considered or discarded. [27]

Debate between candidates for high office

In jurisdictions that

Prime Minister, candidates sometimes debate in public, usually during a general election
campaign.

U.S. presidential debates

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