Deluge (history)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the 17th-century Swedish invasion. For the 18th-century Swedish invasion, see Swedish invasion of Poland (1701–1706). For the use of the term "Deluge" outside the field of European history, see Deluge (disambiguation).

The Deluge
Part of Northern Wars (Second Northern War and the 1654–1667 Russo-Polish War)

The occupation of the Commonwealth by Sweden, Russia, Brandenburg and Khmelnytsky's Cossacks
Date
  • January 25, 1648 – 1666 (wider sense)
  • 1655 – April 23 (O.S.), May 3 (N.S.) 1660 (Swedish Deluge)
Location
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Result

Treaty of Oliva

Territorial
changes		 Swedish-ruled Livonia is formally ceded to Sweden
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
Strength
69,000 191,000[5]
Casualties and losses
Total dead: 3,000,000–4,000,000[6]

The Deluge (

better source needed] due to the simultaneous Russo-Polish War.[9] The term "deluge" (potop in Polish) was popularized by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel The Deluge
(1886).

During the wars the Commonwealth lost approximately one third of its population as well as its status as a

great power due to invasions by Sweden and Russia.[10] According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the destruction of Poland in the Deluge was more extensive than the destruction of the country in World War II. Rottermund claims that Swedish invaders robbed the Commonwealth of its most important riches, and most of the stolen items never returned to Poland.[11] Warsaw, the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, was destroyed by the Swedes, and out of a pre-war population of 20,000, only 2,000 remained in the city after the war.[12] According to the 2012 Polish estimates, the material damage caused by the Swedish army amounted to 4 billion złotys. 188 cities and towns, 186 villages, 136 churches, 89 palaces, and 81 castles were completely destroyed in Poland.[13]

Historical background

Main articles: Khmelnytsky Uprising, Second Northern War, and Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a popular uprising of Zaporozhian Cossacks and Ukrainian peasants discontented with the rule of Polish and Lithuanian magnates. Although the initial phase of the rebellion ended (after much destruction) at the Battle of Berestechko (1651), it brought into focus the rivalry between Russia and the Commonwealth for hegemony over Ukraine and over the eastern Slavic lands in general. Thus, in October 1653, the Russian Zemsky Sobor declared war on the Commonwealth, and in June 1654 the forces of Tsar Alexis of Russia invaded the eastern half of Poland-Lithuania, starting the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. In the summer of 1654, the Russians managed to capture most important cities and strongholds of today's Belarus. Smolensk was captured after a siege on October 3, 1654. The Swedish Empire, which technically already was at war with the Commonwealth (a ceasefire agreement existed from 1629 and was prolonged from 1635 to 1661), invaded in July 1655 and occupied the remaining half of the country.

Swedish invasion

Background

Following the

massacred after it. Furthermore, Swedes remembered claims to their throne by Polish kings Sigismund III Vasa and his sons Władysław IV Vasa and John II Casimir, who themselves belonged to the House of Vasa. An earlier conflict, the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) had ended with the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf
.

The Polish–Lithuanian King John II Casimir (reigned 1648–68) lacked support among the Commonwealth nobility (

Charles X Gustav of Sweden aimed at breaking up the Commonwealth and the Polish–Lithuanian union.[14] They signed the Treaty of Kėdainiai (1655), which envisaged the Radziwiłł princes ruling over two duchies carved out from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Swedish protection
.

1655

Nineteenth-century reimagining of the 1655 Siege of Jasna Góra.

In July 1655 two Swedish armies, operating from Swedish Pomerania and the Province of Pomerania, entered Greater Poland, one of the richest and most developed provinces of the Commonwealth, which had for centuries been unaffected by any military conflicts, and whose levée en masse had not been used to fighting. Greater Poland's noble camp, located in the valley of the Noteć river, near the town of Ujście, looked more like a large party, as the szlachta, gathered there to face the Swedish Army, was more interested in drinking. To make matters worse, two powerful magnates, the Voivode of Poznań Krzysztof Opaliński, and the Voivode of Kalisz, Andrzej Karol Grudziński, argued with each other whether to fight or to give up. Polish troops lacked gunpowder, cannons, and even food, which was stolen at local villages by hungry soldiers.[15]

After an easy Swedish victory at the

after a siege, on October 13, 1655. With the three most populated and best developed Polish provinces in his hands (Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mazovia), Charles Gustav decided to head back northwards to Royal Prussia, which was defended by the Voivode of Malbork, Jakub Wejher. The Swedes, who were generally superior in training, discipline, and equipment, advanced rapidly.[17]

Meanwhile, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose eastern part had been occupied by another Swedish army under Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie since August 1655, Janusz Radziwiłł and his cousin Bogusław Radziwiłł signed the Union of Kėdainiai (October 20, 1655), which ended Lithuania's union with Poland. The decision of the Radziwiłłs was the result of the 1654 Russian invasion, as Janusz Radziwiłł accused the Poles of not helping the Lithuanians with the defence of the Grand Duchy. The Russian capture of Vilnius (August 9, 1655) and the subsequent slaughter of its residents convinced the Lithuanian nobility that Swedish protection was the best solution.[15] The situation of the Commonwealth was desperate, but hope appeared with the Truce of Vilna (November 3), in which Poland and the Tsardom of Russia formed an anti-Swedish alliance. With Russian forces attacking Sweden in Livonia (see Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658)), Poland finally had time to recoup and gather fresh forces. On October 12, 1655, with permission from King John Casimir, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg signed the Treaty of Rinsk, in which the Royal Prussian nobility agreed to allow Brandenburgian garrisons in their province to defend it against the Swedish invasion (the treaty did not include the cities of Gdańsk, Elbląg and Toruń). In November and December 1655 the Swedish army under Gustaf Otto Stenbock captured all the towns of Royal Prussia except for Gdańsk, Puck and Malbork.

Swedish Siege of Kraków in 1655

To prevent John Casimir's return to Poland, Swedish units protected the border with Silesia. On November 18, 1655, the Swedes besieged the monastery at

Stanisław Rewera Potocki, Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski, Stanisław Lanckoroński and Stefan Czarniecki in Krosno, on December 31, 1655. The meeting was also attended by Primate Andrzej Leszczyński, and eight voivodes
.

1656

While in Krosno, the Polish king found out about the end of the siege of Jasna Góra, and about the death of Janusz Radziwiłł. On January 12, 1656, John Casimir left Krosno, and after three days, arrived at

Bełżec. On March 3, Charles Gustav, whose units were harassed by Polish guerilla forces, decided to retreat.[19] At the same time, guerilla warfare also broke out in Mazovia and Greater Poland, and Lithuanian units under the Grand Hetman of Lithuania Paweł Jan Sapieha
began moving towards Red Ruthenia.

The Vow of John Casimir by Jan Matejko
The Vow of John Casimir by Jan Matejko (1838–1893) shows the Polish king in Lwów in 1655, pledging to drive out the Swedes.

On March 11, the Swedish army arrived at Jarosław, fighting its way across the San river. Charles Gustav sent some of his forces to capture Przemyśl, but on March 16 they returned to Jarosław without success. On March 22, the Swedish army set off northwards, along the San and Vistula rivers, back to Warsaw.[19] They were followed by units of Stefan Czarniecki and Aleksander Koniecpolski, and during the retreat, Polish troops supporting the invaders changed sides, joining the forces of John Casimir. On March 30, the starving, cold and tired Swedish army of 5,000 stopped near Sandomierz, which was already in Polish hands. The Swedes camped among the forests of Sandomierz Forest near Gorzyce, where they were quickly surrounded by approximately 23,000 Poles and Lithuanians. To help the besieged army, on March 27 Frederick VI left Warsaw with 2,500 reiters and dragoons, so John Casimir ordered the mounted units of Czarnecki and Lubomirski to face the margrave. Frederick's army was defeated on April 7 in the Battle of Warka. At Gorzyce, however, second-quality Polish forces remained, and the Swedish king managed to break out (April 5), and on April 13, Charles Gustav reached Warsaw. Meanwhile, the Polish king made the Lwów Oath (April 1), in which he entrusted the Commonwealth to the Blessed Virgin Mary's protection, and declared her 'The Queen of the Polish Crown'.

After the Battle of Warka, Czarniecki and Lubomirski decided to head towards Greater Poland and

Nakło (April 19). The Polish attempt to capture Toruń, on April 17, was a failure. After a short rest, Stefan Czarniecki considered a raid of Swedish Pomerania, but other Polish leaders opposed this idea.[19] Charles Gustav decided to prevent the Poles from taking control of the northern districts of the country, and departed Warsaw with an army of 10,000 (April 17). On April 21, the Lithuanians under Sapieha freed Lublin, and on April 23, the Lithuanian army reached Praga, which today is a right-bank district of Warsaw. The forces of Czarniecki and Lubomirski joined other troops near Piła, but on May 7 they were defeated in the Battle of Kłecko, despite their numerical superiority. After the battle, the surviving Polish units regrouped near Gniezno, and in late May, they headed for Warsaw, to help the Lithuanians in the siege of the Polish capital (April 24 – July 1). Warsaw was being defended by Arvid Wittenberg
with 2,000 soldiers, as the main Swedish army was busy besieging Gdańsk. Wittenberg capitulated on July 1, 1656.

Battle of Warsaw in 1656

Already in late 1655, Charles Gustav realized that it would be impossible for him to control the Commonwealth. The Swedish king decided to find allies, who would help him to divide Poland-Lithuania. On June 29, 1656, he signed the

Battle of Prostken (October 8), but after the Tatars decided to return to the Crimea, the Polish–Lithuanian army was defeated in the Battle of Filipów (October 22). In November 1656, Greater Poland's troops invaded the Brandenburger province of Neumark, which resulted in withdrawal of Brandenburger forces from most of Greater Poland. Charles Gustav, knowing that he needed the support of the Elector, agreed to sign the Treaty of Labiau (November 20), which granted full sovereignty to the Prussian ruler, in exchange for his complete military support of Sweden in the ongoing war. The Commonwealth, on the other hand, had already been negotiating with the House of Habsburg. On December 1, 1656, the first Treaty of Vienna was signed, which was followed by a second Treaty of Vienna, in which Emperor Leopold I promised to aid John Casimir with 12,000 troops against the Swedish-Brandenburgian alliance. By late 1656, Swedish troops had been pushed out of most of the Commonwealth. They only held the right-bank half of Royal Prussia, northern Mazovia, Łowicz, Kraków, and Tykocin
.

1657

In 1653, the Transylvanian Hungarian ruler

Carpathians, heading towards Medyka, where 10,000 Cossack allies awaited them. To face the new invader, the army of hetman Stanisław Rewera Potocki rushed southwards. At the same time (January 2), in the Battle of Chojnice, the Swedes defeated the Poles. On February 26, Stefan Czarniecki and King John Casimir met in Kalisz
, where they decided to prevent the Swedish and Transylvanian armies from meeting.

Transylvanian–Swedish Siege of Brest in 1657, painted by E. Dahlbergh

After joining the Cossacks, Rákóczi decided not to attack Lwów, but set off towards Kraków, where the situation of the Swedish garrison under

Dano-Swedish War began, and Charles X Gustav left Poland with most of his troops. The remaining Swedish army was commanded by Gustaf Otto Stenbock
. The Swedish withdrawal made Rákóczi uneasy, as he was well aware of the poor quality of his soldiers. On July 7–8, 1656, at Łańcut Castle, King John Casimir and his hetmans agreed that Stefan Czarniecki would follow Rákóczi and the Cossacks, while Lubomirski's and Potocki's divisions together with Crimean Tatars.

The Ottomans were offended that George II Rakoczi, who was officially their vassal, did not ask their approval to attack Poland and did not want to open another war (in that time they tried to attack Venice through Dalmatia) but when he ignored them they ordered the Crimean Tatars to help the Polish troops and punish Rakoczi. They already replaced Rakoczi's vassal voivodes from Moldavia and Wallachia.[22]

On June 20, 1657, Stenbock was ordered by Charles X Gustav to abandon Rákóczi and head with his army to

Stettin. To save his skin, the ruler of Transylvania began a quick retreat southwards, towards the Carpathians. On July 11, Stefan Czarniecki's division defeated Rákóczi at Magierów near Lwów, and on July 20, the Transylvanian-Cossack army was destroyed in the Battle of Czarny Ostrów in Podolia. Three days later, Rákóczi signed a peace treaty with the Commonwealth, in which he promised to break the alliance with Sweden, withdraw his troops from Kraków and Brześć Litewski, and pay for the damage inflicted by his army. On July 26, remnants of the Transylvanian army were surrounded by the Tatars near Skałat. Rákóczi himself managed to flee, and the army was temporarily commanded by John Kemény
, who himself was captured by the Tatars. After six months of fighting in Poland, Rákóczi's army of 25,000 ceased to exist, with all survivors taken prisoner by the Tatars.

On August 30, the Swedish garrison left Kraków, and throughout August and September 1657, all Swedish troops in Poland moved northwards, to

Ducal Prussia, which had previously allied itself with Sweden and attacked Poland, changed sides and guaranteed military support of the Commonwealth, in return for sovereignty (it had been a fief of Poland since 1466). This treaty is regarded by historian Józef Włodarski as one of the worst mistakes in Polish history.[23]

1658–1660

Siege of Toruń in 1658

In the spring of 1658, the Polish army, together with its Austrian allies under

Battle of Kolding
).

On July 1, 1658, the Sejm ordered the expulsion of the Polish Brethren, who were accused of collaborating with the Swedish invaders.

In 1659, the Swedish army still remaining in Poland under Lorens von der Linde was withdrawn to major Royal Prussian fortresses – Malbork, Głowa Gdańska, Grudziądz, Elbląg, and Brodnica. In August 1659, the Polish army captured Głowa and Grudziądz, and soon afterwards, the starving Swedish garrison at Brodnica surrendered. The siege of Malbork was continued, and Polish – Brandenburgian troops blocked Elbląg. In December 1659, the siege of Elbląg began. Meanwhile, in late 1658, the Polish–Russian truce ended when Russian forces under Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky (Tararui) and Jurij Aleksiejewicz Dołgorukow again attacked the Polish – Lithuanian units (see Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)). The Russians managed to capture large parts of the Commonwealth, but were later defeated in the Battle of Konotop and the Battle of Polonka.

On May 3, 1660, the Treaty of Oliva was signed, which ended the Polish–Swedish War. After the conclusion of the conflict, Poland–Lithuania initiated a large offensive against the Russians, who were beaten in the Battle of Chudnov. In 1661, Vilnius was recaptured (December 2), and in 1663–64, Polish forces invaded Left-bank Ukraine. The war with Russia ended with the Truce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667).

Other conflicts

The Deluge was the climax of a series of wars that took place in Poland–Lithuania in the mid-17th century. The Commonwealth was first affected by the

almost annual slave raids in the territories controlled by the Commonwealth.[24] In all these other invasions, only the Russian invaders caused the most similar damages to the Swedes, due to Russian raids, destructions and rapid incursion which crippled Polish industries.[citation needed
]

With the

Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686
.

The Deluge brought to an end the era of Polish religious tolerance: mostly non-Catholic invaders antagonized the mostly

Catholic Poles. The expulsion of the Protestant Polish Brethren from Poland in 1658 exemplified the increasing intolerance. During the Deluge, many thousands of Polish Jews also fell victim to violence carried out by the Zaporozhian Cossacks.[25]

Outcome

The exact outcome of the Deluge is disputed, historians like Michael Fredholm von Essen state that the Deluge "did not end in a Swedish defeat" and that the Deluge "did not end in a Polish victory,[26] |- while Kevin Wang and James Lee Ray classify the war as a Swedish success diplomatically.[27] Polish politician and writer Jędrzej Giertych mentions it as a defensive victory against Sweden.[28] While Feliks Koneczny calls the result Status quo ante bellum and says that the whole war was an unnecessary bloodshed.[29] The Treaty of Oliva signed in 1660 meant that:[30] Poland gave up most of Livonia with Riga, retaining only part of it (Latgale - the south-eastern part of Livonia) which was in Russian hands at the time, until the Armistice of Andrusov in 1667. King John II Casimir Vasa renounced his right to claim the Swedish Throne for himself and those who succeeded him. He did, however, retain the title of King of Sweden for the rest of his life. Sweden had pledged to uphold freedom of trade in the Baltic. And that Sweden pledged to return the looted archives and libraries.

Destruction of the Commonwealth

Charles X Gustav in skirmish with Polish Tatars at the battle of Warsaw, by Johan Philip Lemke (1684).
Charles X Gustav in skirmish with Tatars at the battle of Warsaw, July 29, 1656. Johan Philip Lemke, oil on canvas, 1684.

The Swedish invasion affected the richest provinces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (

Podlasie), which for the most part had not been affected by major wars for 200 years. According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the Swedish army robbed Poland of her most precious goods – thousands of works of art, books and valuables.[11] Most of these items have never been returned to Poland, and are kept both in private Swedish hands and in Stockholm museums, such as the Swedish Army Museum, and Livrustkammaren. Almost all cities, towns, castles and churches in locations where Swedish troops were stationed were destroyed, and in guides to many Polish towns and cities one can find notes that read "object destroyed during Swedish invasion". From the Royal Castle in Warsaw the Swedes plundered approximately 200 paintings, a number of carpets and Turkish tents, musical instruments, furniture, Chinese porcelain, weapons, books, manuscripts, marbles, even dresses of maids and door frames pulled from walls.[11]
Meanwhile, the Russian invaders in the east had also destroyed and damaged much of the eastern part's infrastructure, partly due to heavy agricultural fertile developments there.

Hubert Kowalski of the

Lwów and Gdańsk were not destroyed, and when Swedish soldiers were unable to steal an item, they would destroy or burn it. In ruins were castles, palaces, churches, abbeys, towns and villages. As a result of the Swedish invasion, few pre-Baroque buildings remained in Poland. An estimated 3 million died.[33]

Among others, Swedish troops stole such items as:

According to the estimates of Polish scholars I. Ihnatowicz, Z. Landau, A. Mączak and B. Zientara, the invasion by the Swedish army and its allies (Brandenburg-Prussia and Transilvania), resulted in the loss of 25% of the population in four core Polish provinces. Lesser Poland lost 23% of population, Mazovia 40% in villages and 70% in towns, Greater Poland 50% in villages and 60% in towns. Royal Prussia lost some 60% of its population.[34] The Commonwealth's population losses are estimated at between 30% and 50% in 1648–1660.[35]

In January 2013 Marek Poznański, a

Palikot Movement member of the Polish parliament, announced his plan to send thousands of postcards to European politicians and journalists, in which he wanted to convince the recipients that Poland should get financial compensation from Sweden for the destruction of the country in the deluge. Poznański claims that in the 1660 Treaty of Oliwa, Sweden pledged to return all stolen goods, which never happened. The MP had previously intervened at the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Culture; he also visited the Embassy of Sweden in Warsaw.[36] A businessman from Warsaw, Sławian Krzywiński, joined Poznański, creating the Foundation of Reconstruction of Destruction Caused by the Swedish Invasion (Fundacja Odbudowy Zniszczeń Dokonanych w Czasie Potopu Szwedzkiego). According to Krzywiński, looted goods are still kept in Swedish museums and private collections. Among others, Poland lost the Braniewo Library, works of Nicolaus Copernicus, including the 1543 Nuremberg edition of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, and the oldest printed text of Bogurodzica. Krzywiński states that as an act of goodwill, the Swedish side should cover the cost of reconstruction of the Rawa Mazowiecka castle, which was destroyed by them in the 1650s.[37]

Effect on the fate of the Commonwealth

One of the most notable effects of the devastating Deluge was the subsequent weakening of Poland's international standing. While Sweden destroyed more, Russia also took part and was second only to Sweden in the level of destruction.[citation needed] With the entire Polish nation crippled by the Swedes and Russians, Russia was able to rise, found the Russian Empire in the early 18th century and play a major role in the Partitions of Poland in the latter half of the 18th century.

In popular culture

The Deluge had a major effect on Poland, and there are several books describing the war. In 1886

Oscar in 1974, but lost to the Italian film Amarcord
.

In 2000, Renata Ocieczek wrote the book Czasy potopu szwedzkiego w literaturze polskiej (The time of the Swedish deluge in Polish literature),

Sienkiewicz
's trilogy) contains a quest called "The Deluge" that is based on the events of the actual Deluge.

See also

References

  1. ISBN 963-326-337-9
  2. ^
    ISBN 963-547-085-1
  3. ^ Palka, Piotr. "Potop szwedzki – jedna z największych tragedii w dziejach Polski". Wszystko co Najważniejsze (in Polish). Although the Commonwealth was in the camp of the victors and defended its existence, it suffered unimaginable losses
  4. ^ "Adolf Johan". sok.riksarkivet.se. Retrieved September 13, 2023.
  5. ISBN 91-89442-57-1
  6. ^ Polska Akademia Nauk, Polska w okresie drugiej wojny północnej, 1957, p=271-280
  7. ^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). Ukraine. A history. Cambridge University Press. p. 104.
  8. ^ "Potop szwedzko-rosyjski, czyli III wojna północna (Swedish-Russian Deluge, or the Third Northern War)". polskieradio.pl. June 1, 2018. Archived from the original on January 6, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
  9. ISBN 0-521-54402-5. Archived
    from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2018.
  10. ^ Zawadzki, Marcin. "Durham University Polish Society". Durham University. Archived from the original on August 21, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2009. During 'The Deluge', Commonwealth lost an estimated ⅓ of its population (proportionally higher losses than during World War II), and its status as a great power.
  11. ^ a b c ""Nikt tak nie ograbił Polski jak Szwedzi"". PolskieRadio.pl.
  12. ^ "Pierwsze zniszczenie Warszawy i jej odbudowa po potopie 1655–1696". www.wilanow-palac.pl. Archived from the original on January 27, 2020. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  13. ^ "Potop szwedzki przyniósł Polsce straty o wartości 4 mld złotych". dzieje.pl. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  14. ^ "Co zgubiło Polskę podczas Potopu szwedzkiego – trzej zdrajcy, historiapolski.eu". Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
  15. ^ a b "Co zgubiło Polskę podczas Potopu szwedzkiego – trzej zdrajcy". historiapolski.eu (in Polish). January 8, 2013. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
  16. ^ "Wstęp". www.zabytki.pl. Archived from the original on November 22, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2012.
  17. ISBN 0-521-54402-5
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  18. ^ Jan Wimmer, Wojna polsko-szwedzka 1655–1660, Warsaw 1973, s. 156
  19. ^ a b c d Nagielski, Mirosław (December 25, 1990). "Warszawa 1656". Bellona. Archived from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved December 28, 2021 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ Kármán, Gábor. "II. Rákóczi György 1657. évi lengyelországi hadjáratának diplomáciai háttere [The diplomatic background of György Rákóczi II's 1657 Polish campaign]". Archived from the original on March 20, 2023. Retrieved November 5, 2020 – via www.academia.edu.
  21. ISBN 978-1851096725. Archived
    from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved December 13, 2015 – via Google Books.
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  23. ^ Włodarski (1993), p. 62.
  24. ISBN 978-1409403746. Archived
    from the original on March 31, 2023. Retrieved June 27, 2019.
  25. ^ Such specifically anti-Jewish violence became known in the modern technical sense as a pogrom in the 19th century. For varying estimates of the numbers of Jews killed and for extensive sources, see the article on the Khmelnytsky Uprising.
  26. ISBN 9781915113603
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  27. ^ Wang, Kevin, and James Lee Ray. “Beginners and Winners: The Fate of Initiators of Interstate Wars Involving Great Powers Since 1495.” International Studies Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 1, 1994, pp. 139–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2600875. Accessed 3 Mar. 2024.
  28. ^ Giertych, Jędrzej (1964). U źródel katastrofy dziejowej Polski (in Polish). p. 177.
  29. ISBN 9788382026658
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  30. ^ "Pokój w Oliwie 1660 - Jan II Kazimierz - pełnia alegorii i symboliki". May 6, 2021.
  31. ^ "Strona główna". Odkrywcy.pl. Archived from the original on December 25, 2021. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  32. ^ "Wiadomości – Wiadomości w Onet – Najnowsze i Najważniejsze Wiadomości z Kraju i Świata". Onet Wiadomości. Archived from the original on April 16, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  33. ^ "Grabieże szwedzkie w Polsce (1). Przyczyny, charakterystyka i skutki". Archived from the original on September 20, 2017. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
  34. ^ I. Ihnatowicz, Z. Landau, A. Mączak, B. Zientara Dzieje gospodarcze Polski do roku 1939. Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa 1988, p. 233
  35. ISBN 978-1138009127
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  36. ^ "Poseł Ruchu Palikota chce odszkodowania za... Potop". Wprost. January 16, 2013. Archived from the original on December 25, 2021. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  37. ^ "Avanti24.pl". Avanti24.pl. Archived from the original on December 25, 2021. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  38. ^ "Publikacje | Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego" (in Polish). Wydawnictwo.us.edu.pl. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
  39. ^ Płosiński J. "Potop szwedzki na Podlasiu 1655–1657 – Płosiński J. – Księgarnia Odkrywcy, książki historyczne". Odk.pl. Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. Retrieved March 12, 2013.

External links

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