Democratic Republic of the Congo naming customs
"Every Congolese person is designated by a name composed of one or more elements which serve to identify him. The first name (prénom), surname (nom), and post-surname (postnom) constitute the elements of the name."
Article 56 of the Family Code of the Democratic Republic of the Congo[1]
In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is common for individuals to possess three separate names: a first name (prénom) and surname (nom) as well as a post-surname (postnom). Each form may comprise one or more elements. For example:
- Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo has the first names Félix Antoine, the surname Tshisekedi, and the post-surname Tshilombo;
- Sylvestre Ilunga Ilunkamba has the first name Sylvestre, the surname Ilunga and the post-surname Ilunkamba.
- Marie-Thérèse Nlandu Mpolo Nene has the first name Marie-Thérèse, the surname Nlandu, and the post-surnames Mpolo Nene.
- Clémentine Faïk-Nzuji Madiya has the first name Clémentine, the surname Faïk-Nzuji, and the post-surname Madiya.
This practice is distinctive to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is not found in other neighbouring countries. As well as ethnic, regional, or familial identity, modern-day naming customs reflect significant historical changes under Belgian colonial rule and the Mobutu regime as well as the post-Mobutu restoration.
Historical changes
Pre-colonial and colonial-era naming
Before the colonial era, people living in the
This system made available to parents, at the birth of the child, a multiplicity of word registers to name it. In this way, the name to be attributed could be a name of reincarnation (
anthroponyms.[2]
This made names highly locally or ethnically specific.[3] Names and naming conventions in the pre-colonial period were diverse and could vary between different ethnic groups. Names could be given to persons either before, at, or after their birth.[4] Infants were rarely without a name for long, though sometimes magic-believing communities would only divulge a baby's second, different name to outsiders so as to protect their "essence" from witchcraft.[5] Some names were gender-specific, while others were gender-neutral. Some groups kept the birth name of a person throughout their life, while others such as the Kongo people changed the name of a child once they reached puberty. The Mbaka people would append a second name onto the birth name of a person at a circumcision ceremony once they were teenagers.[4] Families sometimes changed the names of their children, but Congolese would never change their own names until they had reached adulthood. They would do this if they disliked the connotations of their contemporary name, felt it brought them misfortunate, or to pay homage to life events they experienced.[6]
The spread of
Mobutu regime and authenticité
"They [the whites] imposed on us their foreign names/like Désiré-Joseph [sic] and/Marie-Antoinette./Since his advent, Mobutu/has rescued us from this/mental alienation/prohibiting these Jewish names/intended for the trees of Europe./Let us take again the names/of our ancestors/like Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku/Ngbendu Wa Za Banga."
Lyrics from "Tuvua Tutendela Nzambi", a pro-regime song from c.1972 by Ludala Mundoloshi from Kasai-Occidental.[10]
Mobutu's decrees were perceived as an attack on the Catholic Church which briefly resisted the reforms. Although Cardinal Joseph Malula was forced into exile as a result, there was little popular opposition.[12] In August 1972, it became a criminal offence for a priest to confer a "foreign" Christian name.[13] However, many priests did continue to violate the prohibition by naming children after saints but not officially declaring this.[1] A small number of political exiles also refused to adopt new post-surnames, as did Mobutu's wife Marie-Antoinette. Although post-surnames were often popular, it was noted that they were often unwieldy as a means of identifying an individual and were frequently long.
Post-Mobutu restoration
"My name is Cléophas Kamitatu, and I would add Massamba, because when it's not on the official documents I get in trouble at the airport, so Cléophas Kamitatu Massamba."
Congolese politician Cléophas Kamitatu introducing himself at a conference in 2004[14]
Mobutu was forced to agree to the liberalization of many areas of his regime's policy in the final years of his rule. In 1990, it was announced that the legal restrictions on naming would no longer apply and that people were free to use Christian names. Laurent-Désiré Kabila who, as a rebel commander had never assumed a post-surname or stopped using his first-name, replaced Mobutu in 1997 and allowed Christian names to be used in official documentation for the first time.[15]
Many people re-adopted Christian names which are now a common aspect of Congolese naming practices. However, most also chose to keep their post-surnames as well. In addition to the names of Western saints, it has been noted that an increasingly diverse range of inspirations inform modern name choices including common nouns (Budget, Verdict, Jeunesse) as well as the names of presidents or employers. Others adopt value-based adjectives (Précieux, Sublime) which are usually positive in nature. Increasingly, some have adopted names which are contractions of existing phrases such as Plamedi (from Plan merveilleux de Dieu, "God's Marvellous Plan") or Merdi (from Merci Dieu, "Thank God") or Glodi (from Gloire à Dieu, "Glory to God").[16]
Contemporary naming customs
In official documents or registers such as the Journal officiel de la République Démocratique du Congo, an individual's name is cited in the format: Surname, Post-surname, First name.
In the
References
- ^ a b c Mata, Freddy (23 February 2020). "Pourquoi des Congolais portent-ils des postnoms?" (in Canadian French). Radio-Canada. Ici Toronto. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
- ^ Ndaywel 1998, pp. 99–100.
- ^ a b Ndaywel 1998, pp. 100–1.
- ^ a b Likala 2009, p. 22.
- ^ Likala 2009, p. 24.
- ^ Likala 2009, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Ndaywel 1998, pp. 101–2.
- ^ a b Ndaywel 1998, p. 102.
- ^ Stewart 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Udo-Udo Jacob 2017, p. 41.
- ^ Ndaywel 1998, p. 103.
- ^ Young & Turner 1985, p. 68.
- ^ Ndaywel 1998, pp. 102–3.
- ^ Wilson Center 2004, p. 8.
- ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo (RDC): Whether a presidential decree requires that only a person's family name be recorded on official documents or registers" (PDF). Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 14 June 2005. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ "République démocratique du Congo: la farandole des prénoms" (in French). Le Point. AFP. 24 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
Bibliography
- The Congo Crisis, 1960–1961: A Critical Oral History Conference (PDF), Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2004, retrieved 22 November 2020
- ISBN 978-0-299-10113-8.
- Likala, Osumaka (2009). Naming Colonialism: History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299233631.
- Ndaywel è Nziem, Isidore (1998). "De l'authenticité à la libération: se prénommer en République démocratique du Congo" (PDF). Politique Africaine (72): 98–109. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
- Stewart, Gary (2003). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. London: Verso. ISBN 9781859843680.
- Udo-Udo Jacob, Jacob (2017). Convincing Rebel Fighters to Disarm. Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-046929-5.