Demon
A demon is a malevolent
Demons may or may not also be considered to be devils: minions of
The original
Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions and occult traditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In contemporary Western esoteric traditions, demons may be used as metaphor for inner psychological processes ("inner demons").
Etymology
The
The Greek terms do not have any connotations of evil or malevolence. In fact, εὐδαιμονία (
The English use of demon as synonym for devils goes back at least as far as about 825. The German word (Dämon), however, is different from devil (Teufel) and demons as evil spirits, and akin to the original meaning of daimon.
Ancient Egypt
The exact definition of "demon" in Egyptology posed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancient Egyptian language lacks a term for the modern English "demon".[11][12] Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans.[13] By that, they share some resemblance to the Greek daimon. However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink.[12] Demons in this culture appeared to be subordinative and related to a specific deity, yet they may have occasionally acted independently of the divine will. The existence of demons can be related to the realm of chaos, beyond the created world.[11] But even this negative connotation cannot be denied in light of the magical texts. The role of demons in relation to the human world remains ambivalent and largely depends on context.
Ancient Egyptian demons can be divided into two classes: "guardians" and "wanderers".
The "wanderers" are associated with possession, mental illness, death and plagues. Many of them serve as executioners for the major deities, such as Ra or Osiris, when ordered to punish humans on earth or in the netherworld.[15] Wanderers can also be agents of chaos, arising from the world beyond creation to bring about misfortune and suffering without any divine instructions, led only by evil motivations. The influences of the wanderers can be warded off and kept at the borders of the human world by the use of magic, but they can never be destroyed. A sub-category of "wanderers" are nightmare demons, which were believed to cause nightmares by entering a human body.[11]
Mesopotamia
The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the
Pazuzu is a demonic god who was well known to the Babylonians and Assyrians throughout the first millennium BCE.[23] He is shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings".[23] He was believed to be the son of the god Hanbi.[24] He was usually regarded as evil,[23] but he could also sometimes be a beneficent entity who protected against winds bearing pestilence[23] and he was thought to be able to force Lamashtu back to the underworld.[25] Amulets bearing his image were positioned in dwellings to protect infants from Lamashtu[24] and pregnant women frequently wore amulets with his head on them as protection from her.[24]
According to
Judaism
There are differing opinions in Judaism about the existence or non-existence of demons (shedim or se'irim).[28] Some Rabbinic scholars assert that demons have existed in Talmudic times, but do not exist regularly in present. When prophecy, divine presence, and divine inspiration gradually decreased, the demonic powers of impurity have become correspondingly weak, too.[29]
Hebrew Bible
The
Various diseases and ailments were ascribed to demons, particularly those affecting the brain and those of internal nature. Examples include catalepsy, headache, epilepsy and nightmares. There also existed a demon of blindness, "Shabriri" (lit. "dazzling glare") who rested on uncovered water at night and blinded those who drank from it.[34]
Demons supposedly entered the body and caused the disease while overwhelming or "seizing" the victim. To cure such diseases, it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, at which the
Talmudic tradition and Midrashim
In the
The opinion of some authors is not clear. Abraham ibn Ezra states that insane people can see the image of se'irim, when they go astray and ascribe to them powers independent from God. It is not clear from his work, if he considered these images of se'irim as manifestations of actual spirits or merely delusions.[citation needed] Despite academic consensus, Rabbis disputed that Maimonides denied the existence of demons entirely. He would only dispute the existence of demons in his own life time, but not that demons had existed once.[39]
Occasionally an angel is called satan in the Babylon Talmud. But satans do not refer to demons as they remain at the service of God: "Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns".[40]
Kabbalah
In Kabbalah, demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth).[43] After they are created, they assume an existence on their own. Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation.[44] Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons as punishing angels of destruction. They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently.[45]
Other demonic entities, such as the shedim, might be considered benevolent. The Zohar classifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals.[46]
Second Temple Judaism
The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from the
The Book of Jubilees conveys that sin occurs when
To the Qumran community during the Second Temple period, this apotropaic prayer was assigned, stating: "And, I the Sage, declare the grandeur of his radiance in order to frighten and terri[fy] all the spirits of the ravaging angels and the bastard spirits, demons, Liliths, owls" (Dead Sea Scrolls, "Songs of the Sage", Lines 4–5).[53][54]
Indian religions
Hinduism
In the
Asura, in the earliest hymns of the
With increase in asceticism during the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods.[55] Ascetic humans or ascetic demons were supposed to be more powerful than gods. Pious, highly enlightened Asuras and Rakshasas, such as Prahlada and Vibhishana, are not uncommon. The Asura are not fundamentally against the gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall. Many people metaphorically interpret the Asura as manifestations of the ignoble passions in the human mind and as symbolic devices. There were also cases of power-hungry asuras challenging various aspects of the gods, but only to be defeated eventually and seek forgiveness.
Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's
Buddhism
Belief in demons does not constitute an essential feature in Buddhism. However, since belief in demons were common during the rise of Buddhism, they are integrated into the cycle of Saṃsāra.[1] Accordingly, their malevolent condition is due to their bad karma from their previous lives. When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons.[1]
Iranian demons
Zoroastrianism
The
Book 3 of the Denkard describes demons as the opposite of the creative power of God. As such, they cannot create, but only corrupt, and thus, evil is merely the corruption of the good. Since demons can only destroy, they will ultimately destroy themselves. Chapter 30 questions the reality of demons, since their existence seem to rely on their destruction of good. Therefore, Ahriman and his demons would miss any substance and exist only as absence of good.[57]
Manichaeism
There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology.[63] The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness is dyw (dev).[63] Before the demons attacked the realm of light, they have been in constant battle and intercourse against each other.[63] It is only in the realm of darkness demons are described in their physical form. After their assault on the world above, they have been overcome by the Living Spirit, and imprisoned in the structure of the world.[63] From that point onwards, they impact human's ethical life, and appear as personified ethical qualities, mostly greed, envy, grief, and wrath (desire for destruction).[63]
Ibn al-Jawzi, in his work Talbīs Iblīs (devils' delusion), credits the Manichaeans with believing that each Light and Darkness (God and the Devil) consist of four bodies and one spirit. The bodies of Light (God) were referred to as angels, while the bodies of Darkness (Devil) were referred to as ifrits. Light and Darkness would multiple by angels and demons respectively.[64]
In
In the Shahnameh
The poem begins with the kings of the Pishdadian dynasty. They defeat and subjugate the demonic divs. Tahmuras commanded the divs and became known as dīvband (binder of demons). Jamshid, the fourth king of the world, ruled over both angels and divs, and served as a high priest of Ahura Mazda (Hormozd). Like his father, he slayed many divs, however, spared some under the condition they teach him new valuable arts, such as writing in different languages.[66] After a just reign over hundreds of years, Jamshid grew haughty and claimed, because of his wealth and power, divinity for himself. Whereupon God withdraws his blessings from him, and his people get unsatisfied with their king. With the ceasing influence of God, the devil gains power and aids Zahhak to usurp the throne.[66] Jamshid dies sawn in two by two demons. Tricked by Ahriman (or Iblis), Zahhak grew two snakes on his shoulders and becomes the demonic serpent-king.[67] The King Kay Kāvus fails to conquer the legendary Mazandaran, the land of divs and gets captured.[68] To save his king, Rustam takes a journey and fights through seven trials. Divs are among the common enemies Rustam faces, the last one the Div-e Sepid, the demonic king of Mazandaran.
The div in the Shahnameh might include both demonic supernatural beings as well as evil humans.[69]
Rustam's battle against the demonic may also have a symbolic meaning: Rustam represents wisdom and rationality, fights the demon, embodiment of passion and instinct.[70]: 115 Rustam's victory over the White Div is also a triumph over men's lower drives, and killing the demon is a way to purge the human soul from such evil inclinations. The killing of the White Div is an inevitable act to restore the human king's eyesight.[70]: 115 Eliminating the divs is an act of self-preservation to safeguard the good in oneself's, and the part acceptable in a regulated society.[70]: 115
Native North American demons
Wendigo
The
Middle Eastern and Central Asian demons
Ideas of demons (often called Dīv/Dēw) in
Common features of these Middle Eastern demons are their immortality and pernicious nature, they can turn invisible, and can be enslaved when pierced by a silver needle.[77] Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded.[78] Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring.[79] Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence.[80] In some tales, supernatural powers are attributed to them, such as causing sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone.[81]
Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, the
The origin of the demons is explained by
Christianity
Old Testament
The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent.
The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses and
New Testament
Through the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, and 46 times in reference to
Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books
Demons are included in biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (Exodus 12:21–29). In the
In the Genesis flood narrative, the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (Genesis 6:12). In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence of Mastema. In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job".[98] In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits.
In the Testament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demon Asmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants". Beelzeboul, the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods.[95]
Christian demonology
Since
Building upon the few references to daimon in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers of apocrypha from the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture.
While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent, Origen argued against Celsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up as fallen angels and thus equal to demons.[103]
Many
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite described evil as "defiancy" and does not give evil an ontological existence. He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void" and the unreal, away from God.[10]
Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" (phantastikos) to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into:
- Leliouria: The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon
- Aeria: Demons of the air below the moon
- Chthonia: Inhabiting the land
- Hyraia/Enalia: Dwelling in the water
- Bypochtbonia: They live beneath the earth
- Misophaes: The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell
Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology.[106]
The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.[107]
At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposed
In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewish satan, to be servants of God. According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority.[108] According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices.[109]
Mandaeism
In
Gnosticism
Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially on Platonism. In accordance with Platonism, they regarded the idea as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil.[112] The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with an Archon (demonic ruler).[112] These demons rule over the earth and the realm of planets, representing different desires and passions.[113] According to Origen, the Ophites depicted the world as surrounded by the demonic Leviathan.[113]
Like in Christianity, the term daimons was used for demons and refers to both the Archons as well as to their demonic assistants. Judas Iscariot is, in the Gospel of Judas, portrayed as the thirtheenth daimon for betraying Jesus and a supporter of the Archons.[114]
Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in the Apocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped construct the physical Adam[115] and in Pistis Sophia which states they are ruled over by Hekate and punish corrupt souls.[116]
Islam
In
The presence of jinn in pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs is not only testified by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century.[120]: 54 The jinn were made responsible for various diseases, mental illnesses, and demonic possession,[121](p 122) but also venerated for means of protection.[122] The distinction between a deity and a jinni in pre-Islamic times is not always clear. In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms jinni and ilah (deity) were often used interchangeably.[123] Emilie Savage-Smith, asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.[124] Julius Wellhausen distinguishes between the jinn worshipped in private and deities worshipped in public.[124]: 39 Likewise, some Muslim Quran commentators identify the pre-Islamic Arabian deities, most notably Manat, al-Lat and al-Uzza, with jinn.[125]
Muslims generally adopt the belief that jinn can possess people.
While the jinn are morally ambivalent, the devils are inherently malevolent beings and closer to the devils of the
According to a tradition mentioned in tafsīr (authorized Quranic exegesis) attributed to ibn Abbas, the devils have been dismissed by God when he created Adam.[135] According to the Quran, when God created Adam, he ordered the angels to bow before the newest creation. However, Iblis (Satan) refuses to do so and is consequently punished. He explains that the devils observed the jinn causing corruption on earth, whereupon they were sent to chase away the jinn from the surface. When God created a successor to the jinn, they protested and those who remained in protest, have been punished with hell.[136]
Bahá'í Faith
In the
Occultism
In
You think, as I infer from your words, that a demon is the same as a devil, which is not the case. For a demon is said to be any invisible being using reason, as if knowing. Of these the two high orders are called calodemons, that is, 'good knowing ones', the lower order is called cacodemon, that is, 'evil knowing one', for calos means 'good', cacos 'bad'.[139]
The ceremonial magician usually consults a
In modernity
The Age of Enlightenment conceptualizes humans as autonomous individuals, mostly independent from outer invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate.[141] Previously, the world was understood to be inhabited by various spirits and demons. With the rise of the rationalistic school of thought, the existence of foreign unknown forces was increasingly rejected.[141] Demons were explained as non-existent. Visions of demons and ghosts were explained as the products of one's own mind. By labelling local deities and demons as superstition, local religious ideas were banished, supporting the promotion of nationwide gods and religions.[142] Because of that, demons became increasingly associated with delusions. Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States.[141] The notion of possession was at odds with Western philosophy, such as the American Dream and capitalism, which implies the belief that everyone is responsible for their own fate and not at the mercy of external forces.[141]
Psychological approach
Islamic world
A minority of Muslim scholars in the Medieval Age, often associated with the
Western world
Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt remarked that "among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones."[145] Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died recently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons."[146]
Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial
See also
- Acheri
- Classification of demons
- Empusa
- Erinyes
- Exorcism, Prayer to Saint Michael
- Folk devil
- Goblin
- Holy water § Protection against evil
- Imp
- List of fictional demons
- List of occult terms
- List of theological demons
- Ogre
- Spiritual warfare
- Theistic Satanism
- Troll
- Unclean spirit
- Yaoguai
- Yōkai
- Yōsei
- Yūrei
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This article has an unclear citation style. (December 2023) |
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Further reading
- Baglio, Matt (2009). The Rite: The Making of a Modern Exorcist. Doubleday Religion. ISBN 978-0-385-52270-0.
- Chattopadhyay, Subhasis (2022). "Of Demons and Exorcism in Sanatana Dharma". eSamskriti. Retrieved 2023-12-24.
- Oppenheimer, Paul (1996). Evil and the Demonic: A New Theory of Monstrous Behavior. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6193-9.
- Walton, John H.; Walton, J. Harvey (2019). Demons and Spirits in Biblical Theology: Reading the Biblical Text in its Cultural and Literary Context. Cascade Books. ISBN 978-1625648259.
External links
- Catechism of the Catholic Church: Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Demonology