Depictions of Muhammad
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The permissibility of depictions of Muhammad in Islam has been a contentious issue. Oral and written descriptions of Muhammad are readily accepted by all traditions of Islam, but there is disagreement about visual depictions.[1][2] The Quran does not explicitly or implicitly forbid images of Muhammad. The ahadith (supplemental teachings) present an ambiguous picture,[3][4] but there are a few that have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating visual depictions of human figures.[5] It is agreed on all sides that there is no authentic visual tradition (pictures created during Muhammad's lifetime) as to the appearance of Muhammad, although there are early legends of portraits of him, and written physical descriptions whose authenticity is often accepted.
The question of whether images in Islamic art, including those depicting Muhammad, can be considered as religious art remains a matter of contention among scholars.[6] They appear in illustrated books that are normally works of history or poetry, including those with religious subjects; the Quran is never illustrated: "context and intent are essential to understanding Islamic pictorial art. The Muslim artists creating images of Muhammad, and the public who beheld them, understood that the images were not objects of worship. Nor were the objects so decorated used as part of religious worship".[7]
However, scholars concede that such images have "a spiritual element", and were also sometimes used in informal religious devotions celebrating the day of the
Visual images of Muhammad in the non-Islamic West have always been infrequent. In the Middle Ages they were mostly hostile, and most often appear in illustrations of
Background
In Islam, although nothing in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental hadith explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature; other hadith tolerate images, but never encourage them. Hence, most Muslims avoid visual depictions of any prophet or messenger such as Muhammad, Moses, and Abraham.[1][17][18]
Most Sunni Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets and messengers should be prohibited[19] and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.[20] The key concern is that the use of images can encourage shirk or "idolatry".[21] In Shia Islam, however, images of Muhammad are quite common nowadays even though historically, Shia scholars opposed such depictions.[20][a] Still, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the supplemental traditions will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, including those created and published by non-Muslims.[22]
Many major religions have experienced times during their history when
Portraiture of Muhammad in Islamic literature
Several ahadith and other writings of the early Islamic period include stories in which portraits of Muhammad appear. Abu Hanifa Dinawari, ibn al-Faqih, Ibn Wahshiyya, and Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani tell versions of a story in which the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius is visited by two Meccans. He shows them a cabinet, handed down to him from Alexander the Great and created by God for Adam, each of whose drawers contains a portrait of a prophet. They are astonished to see a portrait of Muhammad in the final drawer. Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni tells a similar story in which the Meccans are visiting the king of China. Al-Kisa'i tells that God did indeed give portraits of the prophets to Adam.[24]
Ibn Wahshiyya and Abu Nuʿaym al-Isfahani tell a second story in which a Meccan merchant visiting Syria is invited to a Christian monastery where several sculptures and paintings depict prophets and saints. There he sees the images of Muhammad and Abu Bakr, as yet unidentified by the Christians.[25] In an 11th-century story, Muhammad is said to have sat for a portrait by an artist retained by Sasanian emperor Kavad II. The emperor liked the portrait so much that he placed it on his pillow.[24]
Later, al-Maqrizi tells a story in which al-Muqawqis, the ruler of Egypt, met with Muhammad's envoy. He asked the envoy to describe Muhammad and checked the description against a portrait of an unknown prophet which he had on a piece of cloth. The description matches the portrait.[24]
In a 17th-century
Depiction by Muslims
Verbal descriptions
In one of the earliest sources, ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, there are numerous verbal descriptions of Muhammad. One description sourced to Ali is as follows:
[H]e was neither too tall nor too short, rather he was of medium height among people. His hair was neither short and curly, nor was it long and straight, it hung in waves. His face was neither fleshy nor plump, but it had a roundness; rosy white, with very dark eyes and long eyelashes. He was large-boned as well as broad shouldered, hairless except for a thin line that stretched down his chest to his navel. His hand and feet were coarse. When he walked he would lean forward as if descending a hill [...] Between his two shoulders was the Seal of Prophethood, and he was the Seal of the Prophets.[27][28]
From the
The Ottoman hilye format customarily starts with the
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Hilye by Hâfiz Osman
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Hilye by Hâfiz Osman
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Hilye by Hâfiz Osman
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Hilye by Mehmed Tahir Efendi (d. 1848)
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Hilye by Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi (1801–1876)
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Hilye by Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi
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Hilye inscribed on the petals of a pink rose symbolising Muhammad (18th century)
Calligraphic representations
The most common visual representation of the Muhammad in Islamic art, especially in Arabic-speaking areas, is by a calligraphic representation of his name, a sort of monogram in roughly circular form, often given a decorated frame. Such inscriptions are normally in Arabic, and may rearrange or repeat forms, or add a blessing or honorific, or for example the word "messenger" or a contraction of it. The range of ways of representing Muhammad's name is considerable, including ambigrams; he is also frequently symbolised by a rose.
The more elaborate versions relate to other Islamic traditions of special forms of calligraphy such as those writing the names of God, and the secular tughra or elaborate monogram of Ottoman rulers.
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Muhammad's name in Thuluth, an Arabic calligraphic script; the smaller writing in the top left means "Peace be upon him".
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Calligraphy tile from Turkey (18th century), containing the names of God, Muhammad, and his first four successors, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali
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Late 18th- or early 19th-century calligraphic panel by Mustafa Rakim
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Mirror calligraphy of Muhammad's name
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Decoupage calligraphy (18th or 19th century) with Muhammad's name in mirror script, top centre; the area below represents a mihrab, or prayer niche.
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Palestinian pottery calligraphy featuring the names of God (الله) and Muhammad (محمد)
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Ambigram – Muhammad (محمد) upside down is read as Ali (علي), and vice versa.
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Fourfold Muhammad in square (or geometric) Kufic script, often used as a tilework pattern in Islamic architecture
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Geometric Kufic from the Bou Inania Madrasa (Meknes); the text reads بركة محمد or baraka muḥammad, i.e. be blessed Muhammad.
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Tile from a 14th-century mausoleum in Uzbekistan, inscribed with Muhammad's name (محمد) in square Kufic; one of a set used to frame a doorway
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Mosque cupola, with Quranic inscriptions and Kufic representations of Allah's and Muhammad's names worked into the tiling
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Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi, Kazakhstan
Figurative visual depictions
Throughout Islamic history, depictions of Muhammad in Islamic art were rare.
This book dates to before or just around the time of the
Christiane Gruber traces a development from "veristic" images showing the whole body and face, in the 13th to 15th centuries, to more "abstract" representations in the 16th to 19th centuries, the latter including the representation of Muhammad by a special type of
A number of extant Persian manuscripts representing Muhammad date from the
Depictions of Muhammad are also found in Persian manuscripts in the following
Probably the commonest narrative scene represented is the
Halo
In the earliest depictions Muhammad may be shown with or without a
Images of Muhammad remain controversial to the present day, and are not considered acceptable in many countries in the Middle East. For example, in 1963 an account by a Turkish author of a Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca was banned in Pakistan because it contained reproductions of miniatures showing Muhammad unveiled.[49]
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Mohammed receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. Illustration on vellum in Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Tabriz, Persia, 1307.
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The Investiture ofIlkhanidmanuscript illustration, 1308-1309.
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Mohammad (riding the horse) receiving the submission of theJami Al-Tawarikh. 1314 - 1315.
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Muhammad meets the monkRashid Al-Din), a manuscript in the Library of the University of Edinburgh; illustrated in Tabriz, Muzaffaridperiod, c. 1315.
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Miniature of Muhammad rededicating theJami Al-Tawarikh, c. 1315
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Muhammad at the Battle of Badr. From the Siyer-i Nebi, c. 1388.
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Muhammad and his wife Aisha freeing the daughter of a tribal chief. From the Siyer-i Nebi, c. 1388.
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Muhammad's Call to Prophecy and the First Revelation; in the , Muhammad is shown with veiled face. c. 1425.
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Journey of the Prophet Muhammad in the Majmac al-tawarikh (Compendium of Histories), Timurid. Herat, Afghanistan, c. 1425.
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Musa va 'Uj, a painting showing Muhammad veiled, surrounded by his successors, and enclosed in a flaming nimbus, 1460s
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Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as theSaadi, 1514
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An image from the Houghton Shahnameh (Metropolitan Museum of Art), dated 1530 - 1535
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A miraj image, reflecting the new,Safavidconvention of depicting Muhammad veiled, dated 1539 - 1543
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companions. From the Siyer-i Nebi, 1594.
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Muhammad advancing on Mecca, with the angelsAzrail, 1595
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Muhammad removes a dragon from the Kaaba. From the Siyer-i Nebi, c. 1595.
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The death of Muhammad. From the Siyer-i Nebi, c. 1595.
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"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi.[50] Muhammad is shown with veiled face, c. 1595.
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The destruction of idols at theaureole. From Hamla-i haydarî ("Haydar's Battle"), Kashmir, 1808.
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"Mohammed's Paradise", Persian miniature from The History of Mohammed,BnF, Kashmir, 1808
Contemporary Iran
Despite the avoidance of the representation of Muhammad in Sunni Islam, images of Muhammad are not uncommon in Iran. The Iranian Shi'ism seems more tolerant on this point than Sunnite orthodoxy.[51] In Iran, depictions have considerable acceptance to the present day, and may be found in the modern forms of the poster and postcard.[12][52]
Since the late 1990s, experts in Islamic iconography discovered images, printed on paper in Iran, portraying Muhammad as a teenager wearing a turban.[51] There are several variants, all show the same juvenile face, identified by an inscription such as "Muhammad, the Messenger of God", or a more detailed legend referring to an episode in the life of Muhammad and the supposed origin of the image.[51] Some Iranian versions of these posters attributed the original depiction to a Bahira, a Christian monk who met the young Muhammad in Syria. By crediting the image to a Christian and predating it to the time before Muhammad became a prophet, the manufacturers of the image exonerate themselves from any wrongdoing.[53]
The motif was taken from a photograph of a young Tunisian taken by the Germans Rudolf Franz Lehnert and Ernst Heinrich Landrock in 1905 or 1906, which had been printed in high editions on picture post cards till 1921.[51] This depiction has been popular in Iran as a form of curiosity.[53]
In Tehran, a mural depicting the prophet – his face veiled – riding Buraq was installed at a public road intersection in 2008, the only mural of its kind in a Muslim-majority country.[12]
Cinema
Very few films have been made about Muhammad. The 1976 film
A devotional cartoon called
While
Depiction by non-Muslims
The earliest depiction of Muhammad in the West is found in a 12th-century manuscript of the
Western representations of Muhammad were very rare until the explosion of images following the invention of the
No barrel, not even one where the hoops and staves go every which way, was ever split open like one frayed Sinner I saw, ripped from chin to where we fart below.
His guts hung between his legs and displayed His vital organs, including that wretched sack Which converts to shit whatever gets conveyed down the gullet.
As I stared at him he looked back And with his hands pulled his chest open, Saying, "See how I split open the crack in myself! See how twisted and broken Muhammad is! Before me walks Ali, his face Cleft from chin to crown, grief–stricken."[59]
This scene was sometimes shown in illustrations of the
Muhammad sometimes figures in Western depictions of groups of influential people in world history. Such depictions tend to be favourable or neutral in intent; one example can be found at the
In 1955, a statue of Muhammad was removed from a courthouse in New York City after the ambassadors of Indonesia, Pakistan, and Egypt requested its removal.[63] The extremely rare representations of Muhammad in monumental sculpture are especially likely to be offensive to Muslims, as the statue is the classic form for idols, and a fear of any hint of idolatry is the basis of Islamic prohibitions. Islamic art has almost always avoided large sculptures of any subject, especially free-standing ones; only a few animals are known, mostly fountain-heads, like those in the Lion Court of the Alhambra; the Pisa Griffin is perhaps the largest.
In 1992, Muhammad was depicted in a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures comic entitled The Black Stone in which the turtles visit Mecca and are accused of stealing the Black Stone.[64]
In 1997, the Council on American–Islamic Relations, a Muslim advocacy group in the United States, wrote to United States Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist requesting that the sculpted representation of Muhammad on the north frieze inside the Supreme Court building be removed or sanded down. The court rejected CAIR's request.[65]
In 2015, a
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Muhammad, seated on the left, possibly reading from the Quran, as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle[68]
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Early RenaissanceInferno. Muhammad is depicted being dragged down to Hell.
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Muhammed and the Monk Sergius (Bahira). This 1508 engraving by the Dutch artist Lucas van Leyden shows a legend that circulated in Europe.
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Portrait of Muhammad as a generic "Easterner", from the PANSEBEIA, or A View of all Religions in the World by Alexander Ross (1683)
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Illustration from La vie de Mahomet, by M. Prideaux, published in 1699. It shows Muhammad holding a sword and a crescent while trampling on a globe, a cross, and the Ten Commandments.
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An engraving of Muhammad in The Life of Mahomet (1719)
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Inferno(1827)
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Muhammad suffering punishment in Hell. From Gustave Doré's illustrations of the Divine Comedy (1861)
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Muhammad as depicted by sculptorWashington, DC carrying a sword and the Quran
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Пророк Магомет (Mohammed the Prophet) by Nicholas Roerich, 1925
Controversies in the 20th and 21st centuries
The 20th and 21st centuries have been marked by controversies over depictions of Muhammad, not only for recent caricatures or cartoons, but also regarding the display of historical artwork.
In a story on morals at the end of the millennium in December 1999, the German news magazine Der Spiegel printed on the same page pictures of “moral apostles” Muhammad, Jesus, Confucius, and Immanuel Kant. In the subsequent weeks, the magazine received protests, petitions and threats against publishing the picture of Muhammad. The Turkish TV-station Show TV broadcast the telephone number of an editor who then received daily calls.[69]
Nadeem Elyas, leader of the Central Council of Muslims in Germany said that the picture should not be printed again in order to avoid hurting the feelings of Muslims intentionally. Elyas recommended to whiten the face of Muhammad instead.[70]
In June 2001, the Spiegel with consideration of Islamic laws published a picture of Muhammed with a whitened face on its title page.[71] The same picture of Muhammad by Hosemann had been published by the magazine once before in 1998 in a special edition on Islam, but then without evoking similar protests.[72]
In 2002, Italian police reported that they had disrupted a terrorist plot to destroy the
Examples of depictions of Muhammad being altered include a 1940 mural at the University of Utah having the name of Muhammad removed from beneath the painting in 2000 at the request of Muslim students.[74]
Sketch in Senang magazine
In 1990, the Indonesian magazine Senang published a letter to the editor by a reader who claimed to have dreamed of Muhammad. The letter was accompanied by a sketch by the magazine's resident artist featuring a "turbaned, faceless figure." No major repercussions immediately followed. However, soon afterwards, there was a separate controversy in which a Christian-owned Indonesian magazine named Monitor published the results of a readers' poll about "most-admired leaders" that put Suharto at number 1 and Muhammad at number 11. The wake of this scandal led to a crackdown on "insulting Muhammad" in general, and so police announced they were investigating Senang and would attempt to track down the author of the letter. Before anything further could happen, Senang voluntarily offered to cease publication.[75][76]
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
In 2005, Danish newspaper
South Park
In 2006, the controversial American
Everybody Draw Mohammed Day was a protest against those who threatened violence against artists who drew representations of Muhammad. It began as a protest against the action of Comedy Central in forbidding the broadcast of the South Park episode "201" in response to death threats against some of those responsible for the segment. Observance of the day began with a drawing posted on the Internet on April 20, 2010, accompanied by text suggesting that "everybody" create a drawing representing Muhammad, on May 20, 2010, as a protest against efforts to limit freedom of speech.[citation needed]
Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings controversy
The Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings controversy began in July 2007 with a series of drawings by Swedish artist Lars Vilks which depicted Muhammad as a roundabout dog. Several art galleries in Sweden declined to show the drawings, citing security concerns and fear of violence. The controversy gained international attention after the Örebro-based regional newspaper Nerikes Allehanda published one of the drawings on August 18 to illustrate an editorial on self-censorship and freedom of religion.[81]
While several other leading Swedish newspapers had published the drawings already, this particular publication led to protests from
Another controversy emerged in September 2007 when Bangladeshi cartoonist Arifur Rahman was detained on suspicion of showing disrespect to Muhammad. The interim government confiscated copies of the Bengali-language Prothom Alo in which the drawings appeared. The cartoon consisted of a boy holding a cat conversing with an elderly man. The man asks the boy his name, and he replies "Babu". The older man chides him for not mentioning the name of Muhammad before his name. He then points to the cat and asks the boy what it is called, and the boy replies "Muhammad the cat".
The cartoon caused a firestorm in Bangladesh, with militant
Wikipedia article
In 2008, around 180,000 people, many of them Muslims, signed a petition protesting against the inclusion of Muhammad's depictions in the English Wikipedia's Muhammad article.[88][89][90]
The petition opposed a reproduction of a 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century
Wikipedia considered but rejected a compromise that would allow visitors to choose whether to view the page with images.
Charlie Hebdo
On 2 November 2010, the office of the French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo at Paris was attacked with a firebomb and its website hacked, after it had announced plans to publish a special edition with Muhammad as its “chief editor”, and the title page with a cartoon of Muhammad had been pre-issued on social media.[citation needed]
In September 2012, the newspaper published a series of satirical cartoons of Muhammad, some of which feature nude caricatures of him. In January 2013, Charlie Hebdo announced that they would make a comic book on the life of Muhammad.[95] In March 2013, Al-Qaeda's branch in Yemen, commonly known as Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), released a hit list in an edition of their English-language magazine Inspire. The list included Stéphane Charbonnier, Lars Vilks, three Jyllands-Posten employees involved in the Muhammad cartoon controversy, Molly Norris from the Everybody Draw Mohammed Day and others whom AQAP accused of insulting Islam.[96]
On 7 January 2015, the office was
On 16 October 2020, middle-school teacher Samuel Paty was killed and beheaded after showing Charlie Hebdo cartoons depicting Muhammad during a class discussion on freedom of speech.[99]
In March 2021 a teacher at
Other incidents
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in January 2010 confirmed to the New York Post that it had quietly removed all historic paintings which contained depictions of Muhammad from public exhibition. The Museum quoted objections on the part of conservative Muslims which were "under review". The museum's action was criticized as excessive political correctness, as were other decisions taken close to the same time, including the renaming of the "Primitive Art Galleries" to the "Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas" and the projected "Islamic Galleries" to "Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia and Later South Asia".[102]
In December 2022, Hamline University in Saint Paul, Minnesota did not renew the contract of an adjunct professor over an October 2022 global art history class showing Medieval-era paintings of Muhammad, despite the professor providing a content warning and allowing students to opt-out of the viewing. In response to criticism from the university's Muslim Students Association chapter, Hamline's Vice President for Inclusive Excellence criticized the incident as Islamophobic.[103] The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, PEN America, Muslim Public Affairs Council, and Council on American–Islamic Relations all issued statements supporting the professor's academic freedom.[104] In January 2023, the professor sued for religious discrimination and defamation, prompting Hamline University officials to retract their accusations of Islamophobia.[105]
See also
General:
Notes
Footnotes
- ^ Thomas Walker Arnold says "It was not merely Sunni schools of law but Shia jurists also who fulminated against this figured art. Because the Persians are Shiites, many Europeans writers have assumed that the Shia sect had not the same objection to representing living being as the rival set of the Sunni; but such an opinion ignores the fact that Shiisum did not become the state church in Persia until the rise of the Safivid dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century."[citation needed]
Citations
- ^ JSTOR 860736.
- ISBN 9780714831763.
- ^ The Koran Does Not Forbid Images of the Prophet, 9 January 2015, Christiane Gruber, University of Michigan]
- ^ Professor Christiane Gruber Beyond Belief
- ^ What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam, John L. Esposito - 2011 p. 14; for hadith see Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith: 7.834, 7.838, 7.840, 7.844, 7.846.
- ^ Gruber (2010), p. 27.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-4887-8
- ^ Gruber (2010), p.27 (quote) and 43.
- ^ Gruber (2005), pp. 239, 247–253.
- ISBN 978-0-8225-8744-6. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-06-123135-3. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ .
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-8078-5577-5. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – Introduction to the exhibition, University of Bergen.
- ^ Office of the Curator (2003-05-08). "Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls" (PDF). Information Sheet, Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-01. Retrieved 2007-07-08.
- ^ a b "Explaining the outrage". Chicago Tribune. 2006-02-08.
- ISBN 978-1-4094-2750-6.
- ^ a b Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – The prophet Muhammad, University of Bergen
- ISBN 978-0-88706-161-5.
- ^ "Islamic Figurative Art and Depictions of Muhammad". religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2007-07-06.
- ^ Atlanta Journal-Constitution.
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- ^ Asani, Ali (1995). Celebrating Muhammad: Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim Piety. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 64–65.
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[H]e was neither too tall nor too short, rather he was of medium height among people. His hair was neither short and curly, nor was it long and straight, it hung in waves. His face was neither fleshy nor plump, but it had a roundness; rosy white, with very dark eyes and long eyelashes. His face was neither fleshy nor plump, but it had a roundness, rosy white, with very dark eyes and long eyelashes. He was large-boned as well as broad shouldered, hairless except for a thin line that stretched down his chest to his navel. His hand and feet were coarse. When he walked he would lean foreward as if descending a hill [...] Between his two shoulders was the Seal of Prophethood, and he was the Seal of the Prophets.
- ISBN 978-0-87365-840-9. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
- ^ Gruber (2005), p.231-232
- ISBN 978-0-19-974746-7. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Quran 21:107
- ^ "BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190". Bibliothèque nationale de France. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
- ^ a b Gruber (2005), p. 240-241
- ^ Grabar, p. 19; Gruber (2005), p. 235 (from where the date range), Blair, Sheila S., The Development of the Illustrated Book in Iran, Muqarnas, Vol. 10, Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar (1993), p. 266, BRILL, JSTOR says "c. 1250"
- ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
- ^ Gruber (2005), 229, and throughout
- ^ Gruber (2005), 229
- ^ Gruber (2010), pp.27-28
- ^ Gruber (2010), quote p. 43; generally pp.29-45
- ISBN 978-1-84511-499-2.
- ^ Tanındı, Zeren (1984). Siyer-i nebî: İslam tasvir sanatında Hz. Muhammedʹin hayatı. Hürriyet Vakfı Yayınları.
- ^ Gruber (Iranica)
- ^ Gruber (2010), p.43
- ^ The birth is rare, but appears in an early manuscript in Edinburgh
- ^ Arnold, 95
- ^ Gruber, 230, 236
- ^ Brend, Barbara. Islamic Art, p. 161, British Museum Press.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3
- ^ "Ottomans : religious painting". Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ a b c d Pierre Centlivres, Micheline Centlivres-Demont: Une étrange rencontre. La photographie orientaliste de Lehnert et Landrock et l'image iranienne du prophète Mahomet, Études photographiques Nr. 17, November 2005 (in French)
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- ^ Michelina Di Cesare (2012), The Pseudo-Historical Image of the Prophet Muhammad in Medieval Latin Literature: A Repertory (De Gruyter), p. 83.
- ^ Avinoam Shalem, "Introduction", in Constructing the Image of Muhammad in Europe (De Gruyter, 2013), pp. 4–7 (fn5 attributes this discussion to Heather Coffey).
- ISBN 0-595-28090-0.
- ^ a b Philip Willan (2002-06-24). "Al-Qaida plot to blow up Bologna church fresco". The Guardian.
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- ^ Johnson, Toby Braden. "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles in Mecca?!? Superheroes in a Religious World: Reflection on a Controversy that Never Was".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ MSN : "How the “Ban” on Images of Muhammad Came to Be" by Jackie Bischof Archived May 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine January 19, 2015.
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- ^ Terror am Telefon, Spiegel, February 7, 2000
- ^ Carolin Emcke: Fanatiker sind leicht verführbar, Interview with Nadeem Elyas, February 7, 2000
- ^ 6. Februar 2006 Betr.: Titel, Spiegel, 6 February 6, 2006
- ^ Spiegel Special 1, 1998, page 76
- ^ "Italy frees Fresco Suspects". The New York Times. 2002-08-22.
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- ^ "Indonesia's Salman Rushdie" (PDF). News from Asia Watch. Human Rights Watch. 10 April 1991. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
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- ^ Staff. Danish cartoons 'plotters' held BBC, 12 February 2008
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- ^ "Ryan j Budke. "South Park's been showing Muhammad all season!" TVSquad.com; April 15, 2006". Tvsquad.com. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
- ^ Ströman, Lars (2007-08-18). "Rätten att förlöjliga en religion" (in Swedish). Nerikes Allehanda. Archived from the original on 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
English translation: Ströman, Lars (2007-08-28). "The right to ridicule a religion". Nerikes Allehanda. Archived from the original on 2007-08-30. Retrieved 2007-08-31. - ^ "Iran protests over Swedish Muhammad cartoon". Agence France-Presse. 2007-08-27. Archived from the original on 2007-08-29. Retrieved 2007-08-27.
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References
- ISBN 978-1-931956-91-8.
- Ali, Wijdan, M. Kiel; N. Landman; H. Theunissen (eds.), "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (PDF), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art, vol. 7, no. 1–24, The Netherlands: Utrecht, p. 7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-12-03
- Grabar, Oleg, The Story of Portraits of the Prophet Muhammad, in Studia Islamica, 2004, p. 19 onwards.
- "Gruber (2005)", Gruber, Christiane, Representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic painting, in Gülru Necipoğlu, Karen Leal eds., ISBN 90-04-17589-X, 9789004175891, google books
- "Gruber (2010)", Gruber, Christiane J., The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales, Christiane J. Gruber, Frederick Stephen Colby (eds), Indiana University Press, 2010,
- "Gruber (Iranica)", Gruber, Christiane, "MEʿRĀJ ii. Illustrations", in Encyclopedia Iranica, 2009, online
Further reading
- Gruber, Christiane J.; Shalem, Avinoam (eds), The Image of the Prophet Between Ideal and Ideology: A Scholarly Investigation, De Gruyter, 2014,
- Gruber, Christiane J., "Images", in: Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds), Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God, ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2014, ISBN 9781610691772, google books
External links
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