Deportation

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Deported" and "Deport" redirect here. For the film, see Deported (film). For French officer and engineer, see Joseph-Albert Deport.
For the process of transferring criminals between countries, see Extradition.
Prisoners and gendarmes on the road to Siberia, 1845
Certificate of identity of deported individual that pertains other Chinese deportation records of the US District court, Los Angeles County, California.

Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a territory. The actual definition changes depending on the place and context, and it also changes over time.[1][2][3][4] Forced displacement or forced migration of an individual or a group may be caused by deportation, for example ethnic cleansing, and other reasons. A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a deportee.[5]

Definition

Definitions of deportation vary, with some implicating "transfer beyond State borders" (distinguishing it from forcible transfer),[2] others considering it "the actual implementation of [an expulsion] order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily",[3] and others differentiating removal of legal immigrants (expulsion) and illegal immigrants (deportation).[6]

This article approaches deportation in the most general sense, in accordance with International Organization for Migration,[7] which defines expulsion and deportation synonyms in the context of migration, adding:

"The terminology used at the domestic or international level on expulsion and deportation is not uniform but there is a clear tendency to use the term expulsion to refer to the legal order to leave the territory of a State, and removal or deportation to refer to the actual implementation of such order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily."[8]

According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.[9]

History

Antiquity

Expulsions widely occurred in ancient history, and is well-recorded particularly in

ancient Mesopotamia.[10] The mass deportation of conquered nations was common, an example of that being the Israelite Assyrian captivity.[citation needed
]

Deportation in the Achaemenid Empire

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:[10]

Deportations in the Achaemenid Empire
Deported people Deported to Deporter
6,000
Egyptians
(including the king Amyrtaeus and many artisans) 		Susa Cambyses II
Barcaeans A village in Bactria
Darius I
Paeonians of Thrace
Asia Minor
(later returned) 		Darius I
Milesians Ampé, on the mouth of Tigris near the Persian Gulf Darius I
Carians and Sitacemians
Babylonia
Eretrians
 Ardericca in Susiana Darius I
Beotians Tigris region
Sidonian prisoners of war Susa and Babylon Artaxerxes III
Jews who supported the Sidonian revolt[11] Hyrcania Artaxerxes III

Deportation in the Parthian Empire

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the

Hsiung-nu, but this is doubted.[10]

Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of Babylon in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC.[12]

Roman POWs in the

Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.[10]

Deportation in the Sasanian empire

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the

wars with the Romans
.

During

Carmanians.[10] Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010).[13] In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar
, Mesopotamia.

After the Arab incursion into Persia during

Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control.[10]

In 395 AD 18,000 Roman populations of

Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.[10]

Major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad).[10]

Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of

Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay".[10] The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.[14]

Middle ages

See also: Medieval antisemitism and Expulsion of the Moriscos

The Medieval European age was marked with several large religious deportations, namely of Jews and Muslims.

Modern deportation

With the beginning of the

Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855.[18]

Meanwhile, in Japan during Sakoku, all portuguese and spanish were expelled from the country.

In the 18th century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam.[19]

In the late 19th century the United States of America began designating "desired" and "undesired" immigrants, leading to the birth of illegal immigration and subsequent deportation of immigrants when found in irregular situations.[20] Starting with the Chinese Exclusion Act, the US government has since deported more than 55 million immigrants, the majority of whom came from Latin-American countries.[21]

At the beginning of the 20th century the control of immigration began becoming common practice, with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 in Australia,[22] the Aliens Act 1905 in the United Kingdom[23] and the Continuous journey regulation of 1908 in Canada,[24] elevating the deportation of "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

In the meantime, deportation of "regular residents" also increased.

Deportation in the US

Main article: Deportation and removal from the United States

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations.[25][26] In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico.[27] Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States.[28][29]

Deportation in Nazi Germany

Main article: the Holocaust
Warsaw Ghetto uprising
.

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews,[30][31] Poles, and Romani from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of euphemisms, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently murdered, as opposed to simply being relocated.[32]

Deportation in the Soviet Union

Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union

Under orders of Joseph Stalin the Soviet Union carried out a forced transfer of various groups before, during and after World War II (from 1930s up to the 1950s). During the June deportation of 1941, after the occupation of the Baltic countries, Eastern Poland and Moldavia, as was agreed by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in an attempt to subdue the countries for their forced incorporation into the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union deported tens-of-thousands of innocent people to Siberia.[33]

Deportation in the Independent State of Croatia

Main articles:
World War II persecution of Serbs

An estimated 120,000

German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.[34]

Present scenario

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without

visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported.[35]

Since the 1980s, the world also saw the development of practices of externalization/"offshoring immigrants", currently being used by Australia, Canada, the United States, the European Union.[36] and the United Kingdom.[37] Some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have even used this to deport their own citizens. They have paid the Comoros to give them passports and accept them.[38][39]

Noteworthy deportees

See also: List of denaturalized former citizens of the United States

Anna Sage were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island
in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.

Opposition

Anarchists protesting against deportations

Many criticize deportations, calling them inhuman, as the questioning the effectiveness of deportations. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhuman to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.[40][41][42]

In popular culture

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, Strange Passage by Theodore D. Irwin. Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are Ellis Island (1936), Exile Express (1939), Five Came Back (1939), Deported (1950), and Gambling House (1951). More recently, Shottas (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "EMN Asylum and Migration Glossary – Removal". European Commission.
  2. ^ a b "Case Matrix Network – Art. 7(1)(d) 5". Case Matrix Network.
  3. ^ a b "Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation". Oxford Public International Law.
  4. ISBN 90-411-0072-5
    .
  5. ^ "Definition of DEPORTEE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2021-02-25.
  6. ^ "DISGUISED EXTRADITION, I.E. SURRENDER BY OTHER MEANS". Council of Europe.
  7. ^ "International Migration Law No. 34 – Glossary on Migration". IOM. 19 June 2019.
  8. ^ W. Kälin, ‘Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation’ in R. Wolfrum (ed) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2014).
  9. ^ IOM 2011, p. 35.
  10. ^
    A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, "DEPORTATIONS," Encyclopædia Iranica, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at "DEPORTATIONS – Encyclopaedia Iranica"
    . (accessed on 30 December 2012).
  11. ISBN 0-8028-0966-9
    .
  12. ISBN 9789004308473.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link
    )
  13. S2CID 191495778
    .
  14. ^ Christensen, The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500, 1993. [page needed]
  15. ^ Russell-Wood (1998:p.106-107)
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-1741668001
    .
  17. ^ Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life, 2002
  18. ^ McCaffray and Melancon, p. 171.
  19. ISBN 978-81-7525-126-7
    .
  20. ^ "The Birth of 'Illegal' Immigration". www.history.com. 2017-09-17.
  21. ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5
    .
  22. Museum of Australian Democracy
    . Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  23. ^ David Rosenberg, 'Immigration' on the Channel 4 website
  24. ^ Johnston, Hugh (1995). "Exclusion". The Voyage of the Komagata Maru: The Sikh's challenge to Canada's colour bar. Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 138. Retrieved 13 March 2022. The Canadian government tried to stop the Indian influx with a continuous passage order-in-council issued 8 Jan. 1908, but it was loosely drafted and successfully challenged in court
  25. ^ Gratton, Brian; Merchant, Emily (December 2013). "Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950" (PDF). Vol. 47, no. 4. The International migration review. pp. 944–975.
  26. ^ McKay, "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley During the Great Depression", Borderlands Journal, Fall 1981; Balderrama and Rodriguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, 1995; Valenciana, "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History", Multicultural Education, Spring 2006.
  27. ISBN 0-674-01629-7
    ("... Operation Wetback revived Depression-era mass deportations. Responding to public hysteria about the 'invasion' of the United States by 'illegal aliens', this campaign targeted large Mexican communities such as East Los Angeles."); Jaime R. Aguila, "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez", Journal of San Diego History, 52:3–4 (Summer-Fall 2006), p. 197. ("Anti-immigrant hysteria contributed to the implementation of Operation Wetback in the mid 1950s....")
  28. ISBN 0-313-21353-4
  29. ISBN 1-59213-232-4
  30. ^ Deportation to the Death Camps, Yad Vashem
  31. Holocaust – The International Institute for Holocaust Research, Yad Vashem
  32. ^ "Holocaust Glossary". Scholastic.
  33. ^ "The Soviet Massive Deportations – A Chronology". SciencesPo. 5 November 2007.
  34. ISBN 0-253-34656-8
    .
  35. ^ Henckaerts, Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice, 1995, p. 5; Forsythe and Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 1996, pp. 53–54.
  36. ISBN 978-0-19-087417-9
    .
  37. Bloomberg UK
    . Retrieved 12 May 2022.
  38. ISSN 0015-7120
    . Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  39. ^ "To silence dissidents, Gulf states are revoking their citizenship". The Economist. 26 November 2016.
  40. ^ "Mass deportation isn't just inhumane. It's ineffective. – The Washington Post". The Washington Post.
  41. ^ "Analysis: Deaths during forced deportation".
  42. S2CID 159652908
    .

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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