Destroyer

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Destroyers
)
For other uses, see Destroyer (disambiguation).

guided-missile destroyers
.
The destroyers of the US Navy's Zumwalt-class, pictured here sailing with a Littoral combat ship (LCS) are the longest and heaviest destroyers currently in service.
The Italian Caio Duilio, belongs to the Horizon-class of Franco-Italian designed first-rate frigates.

In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast, maneuverable, long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a

First World War.[4]

Before

guided-missile destroyers
more capable of independent operation.

At the start of the 21st century, destroyers are the global standard for

nuclear-tipped cruise missiles. At 510 feet (160 m) long, a displacement of 9,200 tons, and with an armament of more than 90 missiles,[5] guided-missile destroyers such as the Arleigh Burke class are actually larger and more heavily armed than most previous ships classified as guided-missile cruisers. The Chinese Type 055 destroyer has been described as a cruiser in some US Navy reports due to its size and armament.[6]

Many

Dutch, Danish, and German, use the term "frigate
" for their destroyers, which leads to some confusion.

Origins

Fernando Villaamil, credited as the inventor of the destroyer concept, died in action during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba in 1898.

The emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy a superior enemy battle fleet using steam launches to fire torpedoes. Cheap, fast boats armed with torpedoes called torpedo boats were built and became a threat to large capital ships near enemy coasts. The first seagoing vessel designed to launch the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876.[7] She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons; these were replaced in 1879 by a single torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, fast enough to evade enemy picket boats.

At first, the threat of a torpedo-boat attack to a battle fleet was considered to exist only when at anchor, but as faster and longer-range torpedo boats and torpedoes were developed, the threat extended to cruising at sea. In response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called "catchers" were built, which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. They needed significant seaworthiness and endurance to operate with the battle fleet, and as they inherently became larger, they became officially designated "torpedo-boat destroyers", and by the First World War were largely known as "destroyers" in English. The antitorpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French (contre-torpilleur), Italian (cacciatorpediniere), Portuguese (contratorpedeiro), Czech (torpédoborec), Greek (antitorpiliko, αντιτορπιλικό), Dutch (torpedobootjager) and, up until the Second World War, Polish (kontrtorpedowiec, now obsolete).[8]

Once destroyers became more than just catchers guarding an anchorage, they were recognized to be also ideal to take over the offensive role of torpedo boats themselves, so they were also fitted with torpedo tubes in addition to their antitorpedo-boat guns. At that time, and even into World War I, the only function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks and to make such attacks on the battleships of the enemy. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future.

Early designs

The Imperial Japanese Navy's Kotaka (1887)

An important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB 81.[9] This was a large (137 ton) torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes. At 23.75 knots (43.99 km/h; 27.33 mph), while still not fast enough to engage enemy torpedo boats reliably, the ship at least had the armament to deal with them.

Another forerunner of the torpedo-boat destroyer (TBD) was the Japanese torpedo boat

Yarrow shipyard in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot (50 m) long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots (35 km/h), and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat built to date. In her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for Kotaka, "considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer".[12]

The German

Hotchkiss revolver cannon.[13]

Torpedo gunboat

Main article: Torpedo gunboat
HMS Spider, an early model of torpedo gunboat

The first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes and an adequate gun armament, intended for hunting down smaller enemy boats. By the end of the 1890s, torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the TBDs, which were much faster.

The first example of this was

3-pounder QF guns and four 14-inch (360 mm) torpedo tubes, arranged with two fixed tubes at the bow and a set of torpedo-dropping carriages on either side. Four torpedo reloads were carried.[14]

A number of torpedo gunboat classes followed, including the Grasshopper class, the Sharpshooter class, the Alarm class, and the Dryad class – all built for the Royal Navy during the 1880s and the 1890s. In the 1880s, the Chilean Navy ordered the construction of two Almirante Lynch class torpedo gunboats from the British shipyard Laird Brothers, which specialized in the construction of this type of vessel. The novelty is that one of these Almirante Lynch-class torpedo boats managed to sink the ironclad Blanco Encalada with a self-propelled torpedoes in the Battle of Caldera Bay in 1891, thus surpassing its main function of hunting torpedo boats.

Fernando Villaamil, second officer of the Ministry of the Navy of Spain, designed his own torpedo gunboat to combat the threat from the torpedo boat.[15] He asked several British shipyards to submit proposals capable of fulfilling these specifications. In 1885, the Spanish Navy chose the design submitted by the shipyard of James and George Thomson of Clydebank. Destructor (Destroyer in Spanish) was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887. Some authors considered her as the first destroyer ever built.[16][17]

Spanish warship Destructor in 1890, the first destroyer ever built

She displaced 348 tons, and was the first warship

6-pounder) Nordenfelt guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) (3-pdr) Hotchkiss cannons and two 15-inch (38 cm) Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes.[19] The ship carried three torpedoes per tube.[1] She carried a crew of 60.[19]

In terms of gunnery, speed, and dimensions, the specialised design to chase torpedo boats and her high-seas capabilities, Destructor was an important precursor to the TBD.[21][1]

Development of modern destroyers

HMS Havock, the first modern destroyer, commissioned in 1894

The first classes of ships to bear the formal designation TBD were the Daring class of two ships and Havock class of two ships of the Royal Navy.

Early torpedo gunboat designs lacked the range and speed to keep up with the fleet they were supposed to protect. In 1892, the

quick-firing small-calibre guns. Six ships to the specifications circulated by the admiralty were ordered initially, comprising three different designs each produced by a different shipbuilder: HMS Daring and HMS Decoy from John I. Thornycroft & Company, HMS Havock and HMS Hornet from Yarrows, and HMS Ferret and HMS Lynx from Laird, Son & Company.[22]

These ships all featured a turtleback (i.e. rounded)

12-pounder gun and three 6-pounder guns, with one fixed 18-in torpedo tube in the bow plus two more torpedo tubes on a revolving mount abaft the two funnels. Later, the bow torpedo tube was removed and two more 6-pounder guns added, instead. They produced 4,200 hp from a pair of Thornycroft water-tube boilers, giving them a top speed of 27 knots, giving the range and speed to travel effectively with a battle fleet. In common with subsequent early Thornycroft boats, they had sloping sterns and double rudders.[23]

The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first TBD in 1899, with the Durandal-class torpilleur d'escadre. The United States commissioned its first TBD, USS Bainbridge, Destroyer No. 1, in 1902, and by 1906, 16 destroyers were in service with the US Navy.[24]

Subsequent improvements

Builders' plans for the British Charger class, built 1894–95

Torpedo boat destroyer designs continued to evolve around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways. The first was the introduction of the steam turbine. The spectacular unauthorized demonstration of the turbine-powered Turbinia at the 1897 Spithead Navy Review, which, significantly, was of torpedo-boat size, prompted the Royal Navy to order a prototype turbine-powered destroyer, HMS Viper of 1899. This was the first turbine warship of any kind, and achieved a remarkable 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph) on sea trials. By 1910, the turbine had been widely adopted by all navies for their faster ships.[7]

The second development was the replacement of the torpedo boat-style turtleback foredeck by a raised forecastle for the new River-class destroyers built in 1903, which provided better sea-keeping and more space below deck.

The first warship to use only fuel oil propulsion was the Royal Navy's TBD HMS Spiteful, after experiments in 1904, although the obsolescence of coal as a fuel in British warships was delayed by oil's availability.[25][26] Other navies also adopted oil, for instance the USN with the Paulding class of 1909. In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern. The hull was long and narrow, with a relatively shallow draft. The bow was either raised in a forecastle or covered under a turtleback; underneath this were the crew spaces, extending 1⁄4 to 1⁄3 the way along the hull. Aft of the crew spaces was as much engine space as the technology of the time would allow - several boilers and engines or turbines. Above deck, one or more quick-firing guns were mounted in the bows, in front of the bridge; several more were mounted amidships and astern. Two tube mountings (later on, multiple mountings) were generally found amidships.

Between 1892 and 1914, destroyers became markedly larger; initially 275 tons with a length of 165 feet (50 m) for the Royal Navy's first

high-tensile steel[7]
only 1⁄8 in (3.2 mm) thick.

By 1910, the steam-driven displacement (that is, not

hydroplaning) torpedo boat had become redundant as a separate type. Germany, nevertheless, continued to build such boats until the end of World War I, although these were effectively small coastal destroyers. In fact, Germany never distinguished between the two types, giving them pennant numbers in the same series and never giving names to destroyers. Ultimately, the term "torpedo boat" came to be attached to a quite different vessel – the very fast-hydroplaning, motor-driven motor torpedo boat
.

Early use and World War I

Navies originally built TBDrs to protect against torpedo boats, but admirals soon appreciated the flexibility of the fast, multipurpose vessels that resulted. Vice-Admiral Sir

Baldwin Walker laid down destroyer duties for the Royal Navy:[28]

  • Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about
  • Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass
  • Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return
  • Attacking an enemy fleet

Early destroyers were extremely cramped places to live, being "without a doubt magnificent fighting vessels... but unable to stand bad weather".[29] During the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy TBD Akatsuki[30][31][32] described "being in command of a destroyer for a long period, especially in wartime... is not very good for the health". Stating that he had originally been strong and healthy, he continued, "life on a destroyer in winter, with bad food, no comforts, would sap the powers of the strongest men in the long run. A destroyer is always more uncomfortable than the others, and rain, snow, and sea-water combine to make them damp; in fact, in bad weather, there is not a dry spot where one can rest for a moment."[33]

The Japanese destroyer-commander finished with, "Yesterday, I looked at myself in a mirror for a long time; I was disagreeably surprised to see my face thin, full of wrinkles, and as old as though I were 50. My clothes (uniform) cover nothing but a skeleton, and my bones are full of rheumatism."[33]

In 1898, the US Navy officially classified USS Porter, a 175-foot (53 m) long all steel vessel displacing 165 tons, as a torpedo boat, but her commander, LT. John C. Fremont, described her as "...a compact mass of machinery not meant to keep the sea nor to live in... as five-sevenths of the ship are taken up by machinery and fuel, whilst the remaining two-sevenths, fore and aft, are the crew's quarters; officers forward and the men placed aft. And even in those spaces are placed anchor engines, steering engines, steam pipes, etc. rendering them unbearably hot in tropical regions."[34]

Early combat

HMS Loyal, of the Laforey class

The TBD's first major use in combat came during the

Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War
on 8 February 1904.

Three destroyer divisions attacked the Russian fleet in port, firing a total of 18 torpedoes, but only two Russian battleships, Tsesarevich and Retvizan, and a protected cruiser, Pallada, were seriously damaged due to the proper deployment of torpedo nets. Tsesarevich, the Russian flagship, had her nets deployed, with at least four enemy torpedoes "hung up" in them,[35] and other warships were similarly saved from further damage by their nets.[36]

While capital-ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units engaged almost continually in raiding and patrol actions. The first shot of the war at sea was fired on 5 August 1914 by HMS Lance, one of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, in an engagement with the German auxiliary minelayer Königin Luise.[37]

Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted the

Battle of Gallipoli, acting as troop transports and as fire-support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role. Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo boats took part in the Battle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships. Jutland also concluded with a messy night action between the German High Seas Fleet
and part of the British destroyer screen.

USS Wickes, a Wickes-class destroyer

The threat evolved by World War I with the development of the submarine, or U-boat. The submarine had the potential to hide from gunfire and close underwater to fire torpedoes. Early-war destroyers had the speed and armament to intercept submarines before they submerged, either by gunfire or by ramming. Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that they were difficult to hit with torpedoes.

HMS Badger was the first destroyer to successfully ram a submarine.

The desire to attack submarines under water led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war. They were quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, and depth charges and hydrophones for identifying submarine targets. The first submarine casualty credited to a destroyer was the German U-19, rammed by HMS Badger on 29 October 1914. While U-19 was only damaged, the next month, HMS Garry successfully sank U-18. The first depth-charge sinking was on 4 December 1916, when UC-19[38] was sunk by HMS Llewellyn.

The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on antisubmarine patrol. Once Germany adopted unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, destroyers were called on to escort merchant convoys. US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be dispatched upon the American entry to the war, and a squadron of Japanese destroyers even joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean. Patrol duty was far from safe; of the 67 British destroyers lost in the war, collisions accounted for 18, while 12 were wrecked.

At the end of the war, the state-of-the-art was represented by the British W class.

1918–1945

See also:
List of destroyers of the Second World War
V-class destroyer, HMS Velox

The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments. A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the war, because destroyers had expended all their torpedoes in an initial salvo. The British V and W classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models. The V and W classes set the standard of destroyer building well into the 1920s.

Two Romanian destroyers

Romanian Navy. The two Romanian warships were thus the destroyers with the greatest firepower in the world throughout much of the interwar period. As of 1939, when the Second World War started, their artillery, although changed, was still close to cruiser standards, amounting to nine heavy naval guns (five of 120 mm and four of 76 mm). In addition, they retained their two twin 457 mm torpedo tubes and two machine guns, plus the capacity to carry up to 50 mines.[39]

Fubuki-class destroyer, Uranami

The next major innovation came with the Japanese Fubuki class or "special type", designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928. The design was initially noted for its powerful armament of six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and three triple torpedo mounts. The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for antiaircraft warfare, and the 24-inch (61 cm), oxygen-fueled Long Lance Type 93 torpedo. The later Hatsuharu class of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedoes close at hand in the superstructure, allowing reloading within 15 minutes.

Most other nations replied with similar larger ships. The US Porter class adopted twin 5-inch (127 mm) guns, and the subsequent Mahan class and Gridley classes (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16, respectively.

France's Le Fantasque class is the fastest destroyer class ever built.

In the Mediterranean, the Italian Navy's building of very fast light cruisers of the Condottieri class prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs. The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their Chacal class of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930. The Le Fantasque class of 1935 carried five 138 millimetres (5.4 in) guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of 45 knots (83 km/h), which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer.[40] The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift; most Italian designs of the 1930s were rated at over 38 knots (70 km/h), while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns.

Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program. The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels. This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy 150 millimetres (5.9 in) guns. German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery; while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems.

Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller, but more numerous than those used by other nations. The British built a series of destroyers (the

A class to I class), which were about 1,400 tons standard displacement, and had four 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns and eight torpedo tubes; the American Benson class of 1938 was similar in size, but carried five 5-inch (127 mm) guns and ten torpedo tubes. Realizing the need for heavier gun armament, the British built the Tribal class of 1936 (sometimes called Afridi after one of two lead ships). These ships displaced 1,850 tons and were armed with eight 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes. These were followed by the J-class
and L-class destroyers, with six 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns in twin turrets and eight torpedo tubes.

Antisubmarine sensors included sonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent. Antisubmarine weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in World War I, had made no progress.

Later combat

Further information:
Romanian World War II destroyers
USS McGowan, a Fletcher-class destroyer during World War II

During the 1920s and 1930s, destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster. British and American destroyers were common on the Chinese coast and rivers, even supplying landing parties to protect colonial interests. By World War II, the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and

anti-air and anti-submarine weapons. By this time the destroyers had become large, multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right. As a result, casualties on destroyers were among the highest. In the US Navy, particularly in World War II, destroyers became known as tin cans
due to their light armor compared to battleships and cruisers.

The need for large numbers of antisubmarine ships led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized antisubmarine warships called corvettes and frigates by the Royal Navy and destroyer escorts by the USN. A similar programme was belatedly started by the Japanese (see Matsu-class destroyer). These ships had the size and displacement of the original TBDs from which the contemporary destroyer had evolved.

Post-World War II

The Polish destroyer ORP Błyskawica is preserved as a museum ship in Gdynia.

Some conventional destroyers completed in the late 1940s and 1950s were built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the squid mortar. Examples include the British Daring-class, US Forrest Sherman-class, and the Soviet Kotlin-class destroyers.

Some World War II–vintage ships were modernized for antisubmarine warfare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the US

FRAM I programme and the British Type 15 frigates
converted from fleet destroyers.

The advent of

Guided missile destroyers (DDG in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine, and surface threats. Examples include the Soviet Kashin class, the British County class, and the US Charles F. Adams class
.

The 21st century destroyers tend to display features such as large, slab sides without complicated corners and crevices to keep the

hangars
.

Operators

Countries by destroyer number (countries which operate destroyers in blue, specific colour code shown on image)
A Chinese Navy Luyang III-class (Type 052D) destroyer
guided missile destroyer of the Russian Navy

Ships of equivalent to frigates

Ships of note classed as frigates

  •  Egyptian Navy operates the ENS Tahya Misr. This is one of the Aquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.
  •  German Navy operates three Sachsen-class frigates and four Baden-Württemberg-class frigates. These ships are officially classified as frigates by Germany, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.
  •  Royal Moroccan Navy operates the Mohammed VI. This is one of the Aquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.
  •  Royal Netherlands Navy operates four De Zeven Provinciën-class frigates. These ships are classified as frigates by the Netherlands, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.
  •  Royal Norwegian Navy operates four Fridtjof Nansen-class frigates. These ships are subclasses of Spain's Alvaro de Bazan-class, and classified as frigates, but are regarded as destroyers due to their size and armament.
  •  Romanian Naval Forces operates Mărășești. This ship was classified as a destroyer from 1990 to 2001, when she was reclassified as a frigate. No official reason was given for this and there was no change in armament or capability, thus remaining in the destroyer type.
  •  Spanish Navy operates five Álvaro de Bazán-class frigates. These ships are officially classified as a frigates by Spain, but due to their size and capabilities are regarded internationally as destroyers.

Former operators

Future development

F125-class frigate of the German Navy
; currently the biggest frigates worldwide. In size and role they are qualified as destroyers
  •  Brazilian Navy plans to build 7,000-ton destroyers after the delivery of the new frigates, and TKMS presented to the Navy its most modern 7,200-ton MEKO A-400 air defense destroyer, an updated version of the German F-125-class frigates. The similarities between the projects and the high rate of commonality between requirements were also crucial for the consortium's victory.[45]
  •  People's Liberation Army Navy is adding six more Type 052D destroyer and sixteen more Type 055 destroyer class ships to its navy.
  •  
    Amiral Ronarc'h-class destroyers (classed as "first rank frigates" in the French Navy).[44]
  •  German Navy: Six multi-mission F126 frigates which will have destroyer-size and corresponding capabilities (Length: 163 m, displacement: 10,550 tons)[46]
  •  
    Frégate de défense et d'intervention
    (with an option on a fourth) from France.
  •  Indian Navy is building four Visakhapatnam-class destroyers, of which two have been commissioned. The nation has also begun development of its Next Generation Destroyer (NGD), also referred to as Project 18-class destroyers.[47]
  •  
    Khalije Fars-class
    destroyers.
  •  Italian Navy is currently researching development into their new DDX project to replace their Durand da le Penne-class destroyers.[48]
  •  
    DDR Destroyer Revolution
    Project.
  •  
    Chungmugong Yi Sun-shin-class destroyers. The first unit is expected to enter service in 2019. Additionally, Sejong the Great-class
    destroyers are being built.
  •  Russian Navy has begun development of its Lider-class destroyer. Design work was ongoing as of 2020.[49]
  •  
    anti-air warfare
    .
  •  Royal Navy is in the early stages of developing a Type 83 destroyer design after the unveiling of these plans in the 2021 defence white paper. The class is projected to replace the current Type 45 destroyer fleet beginning in the latter 2030s.[50]
  •  United States Navy, currently has 19 additional Arleigh Burke destroyers planned or under construction. The new ships will be the upgraded "flight III" version.[51] The United States has also started development of its DDG(X) next-generation destroyer project.[52] Construction of the first ship is expected to start in 2028.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Although the Russian Kirov class are sometimes classified as battlecruisers due to their displacement, they are described by Russia as large missile cruisers.

References

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  2. ^ Smith, Charles Edgar: A short history of naval and marine engineering. Babcock & Wilcox, ltd. at the University Press, 1937, page 263
  3. ^ Gove p. 2412
  4. ^ Lyon pp. 8, 9
  5. ^ Northrop Grumman christened its 28th Aegis guided missile destroyer, William P. Lawrence (DDG 110) April 19, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
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  10. ^ Jentschura p. 126
  11. ISBN 978-0-87021-192-8
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  16. ISBN 0-313-25971-2
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  21. ^ "The Destructor -100 Years". www.quarterdeck.org. Archived from the original on 2021-02-26. Retrieved 2019-04-28.
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  23. ISBN 978-1-84067-364-7
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  25. ISSN 0036-8733
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  28. ISBN 0-603-03723-2
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  32. ^ Jentschura p. 132
  33. ^ a b Grant p. 102, 103
  34. ^ Simpson p. 100
  35. ^ Grant p. 42
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  37. ^ The Königin Luise was abandoned and scuttled by her crew, but the British patrol later passed through the area she had mined and a cruiser was damaged and abandoned.
  38. ISBN 9781557508591
    .
  39. ^ Brassey's Annual: The Armed Forces Year-book, Praeger Publishers, 1939, p. 276
  40. ISBN 978-1-84832-198-4
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  41. ^ Johnson, Jesse (2020-01-12). "China's navy commissions biggest and 'most powerful' surface warship". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
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  44. ^ a b "French Navy - Marine Nationale - Ships Submarines Aircraft".
  45. ^ "CCT – thyssenkrupp Marine Systems - Dr Rolf Wirtz: O nosso diferencial é a Qualidade do Produto". Defesa Net (in Portuguese). 9 January 2019. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  46. ^ "Zwei weitere MKS 180 für die deutsche Marine – bundeswehr-journal". 14 February 2017.
  47. ^ Technology perspective
  48. ^ "Italy plans new destroyers for 2028 delivery". 9 November 2020.
  49. ^ "Russia's Ambitious Shkval Nuclear Powered Destroyer Program Isn't Dead Yet". Military Watch Magazine. 5 July 2020.
  50. ^ Allison, George (22 March 2021). "UK announces new Type 83 Destroyer". ukdefencejournal.org.uk.
  51. ^ "Report to Congress on U.S. Navy Destroyer Programs". usni.org. 11 July 2018. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  52. ^ "Navy Unveils Next-Generation DDG(X) Warship Concept with Hypersonic Missiles, Lasers". 12 January 2022.

Further reading

External links

Look up destroyer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Media related to Destroyers at Wikimedia Commons

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