Development of the human body
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Development of the human body is the process of
Before birth
Development before birth, or prenatal development (from
Fertilization
Fertilization occurs when the sperm successfully enters the ovum's membrane. The chromosomes of the sperm are passed into the egg to form a unique genome. The egg becomes a zygote and the germinal stage of embryonic development begins. The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization, through the development of the early embryo, up until implantation. The germinal stage is over at about 10 days of gestation.[2]
The
Embryonic development
The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization through the development of the early embryo until
In comparison to the embryo, the fetus has more recognizable external features and a more complete set of developing organs. The entire process of embryonic development involves coordinated spatial and temporal changes in gene expression, cell growth and cellular differentiation. A nearly identical process occurs in other species, especially among chordates.
Fetal development
A fetus is a stage in the human development considered to begin nine weeks after fertilization.[4][5] In biological terms, however, prenatal development is a continuum, with many defining features distinguishing an embryo from a fetus. A fetus is also characterized by the presence of all the major body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional and some not yet situated in their final location.
Maternal influences
The fetus and embryo develop within the
After birth
Infancy and childhood
Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to
- Prepubescence
- Neonate (newborn)
- Infant (baby)
- Toddler
- Play age
- Elementary school age, may coincide with preadolescence(preteen)
The
For North American, Indo-Iranian (India, Iran) and European girls | For North American, Indo-Iranian (India, Iran) and European boys |
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Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a
On average, girls begin puberty around ages 10–11 and end puberty around 15–17; boys begin around ages 11–12 and end around 16–17.[8][9][10][11][12] The major landmark of puberty for females is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs on average between ages 12 and 13;[13][14][15][16] for males, it is the first ejaculation, which occurs on average at age 13.[17] In the 21st century, the average age at which children, especially girls, reach puberty is lower compared to the 19th century, when it was 15 for girls and 16 for boys.[18] This can be due to any number of factors, including improved nutrition resulting in rapid body growth, increased weight and fat deposition,[19] or exposure to endocrine disruptors such as xenoestrogens, which can at times be due to food consumption or other environmental factors.[20][21] Puberty which starts earlier than usual is known as precocious puberty, and puberty which starts later than usual is known as delayed puberty.
Notable among the morphologic changes in size, shape, composition, and functioning of the pubertal body, is the development of secondary sex characteristics, the "filling in" of the child's body; from girl to woman, from boy to man.[clarification needed]
Adulthood
Biologically, an adult is a human or other organism that has reached sexual maturity. In human context, the term adult has additional meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a legal minor, a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. The typical age of legal majority is 18 years in most contexts, although the definition of majority may vary by legal rights and country.
Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development. Definitions of adulthood are often inconsistent and contradictory; an adolescent may be biologically an adult and display adult behavior but still be treated as a child if they are under the legal age of majority. Conversely, a legal adult may possess none of the maturity and responsibility that is supposed to define them; the mental and physical development and maturity of an individual has been proven to be greatly influenced by their life circumstances.
Organ systems
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Development of organ systems |
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Human organs and organ systems develop in a process known as organogenesis. This begins in the third week of embryonic development, when the gastrula forms three distinct germ layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The ectoderm will eventually develop into the outer layer of skin and nervous system. The mesoderm will form skeletal muscles, blood cells, the reproductive system, the urinary system, most of the circulatory system, and the connective tissue of the torso. The endoderm will develop into the epithelium of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and several glands.[22]
Linear growth
During childhood, the bones undergo a complex process of elongation that occurs in a specific area called
Linear growth takes place in the epiphyseal growth plates (EGP) of long bones.[23] In the growth plate, chondrocytes proliferate, hypertrophy and secrete cartilage extracellular matrix. New cartilage is subsequently remodeled into bone tissue, causing bones to grow longer.[24] Linear growth is a complex process regulated by the growth hormone (GH) - insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis, the thyroxine/triiodothyronine axis, androgens, estrogens, vitamin D, glucocorticoids and possibly leptin.[25] GH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to hypothalamic, pituitary and circulating factors. It affects growth by binding to receptors in the EGP,[23] and inducing production and release of IGF-1 by the liver.[26] IGF-1 has six binding proteins (IGFBPs), exhibiting different effects on body tissues, where IGFBP-3 is most abundant in human circulation.[27] IGF-1 initiates growth through differentiation and maturation of osteoblasts, and regulates release of GH from the pituitary through feedback mechanisms.[28] The GH/IGF-1 axis is responsive to dietary intake and infections. The endocrine system seems to allow for rapid growth only when the organism is able to consume sufficient amounts of nutrients and signaling from key nutrients such as amino acids and zinc to induce production of IGF-1 is present.[25] At the same time inflammation and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines may cause GH resistance and a decrease in circulating IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 which in turn reduces endochondrial ossification and growth.[25][29] However, the EGP appears to conserve much growth capacity to allow for catch-up growth.[30] Concerns have been raised about associations between catch-up growth and increased risk of non-communicable diseases in adulthood.[31] In a large study based on 5 birth cohorts in Brazil, Guatemala, India, the Philippines and South Africa, faster linear growth at 0–2 years was associated with improvements in adult stature and school performance, but also an increased likelihood of overweight (mainly related to lean mass) and a slightly elevated blood pressure in young adulthood.[32]
See also
- Auxology
- Developmental biology
- Human body
- Life-history theory
- List of youth-related terms
- Outline of human anatomy
References
This article incorporates text by Marianne Sandsmark Morseth available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license.
- ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Human body/Basic form and development". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2019-10-31. Retrieved 2020-04-08.
- ^ a b c "Germinal stage". Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
- ISBN 978-0470-91777-0.
- ^ Klossner, N. Jayne, Introductory Maternity Nursing (2005): "The fetal stage is from the beginning of the 9th week after fertilization and continues until birth"
- ^ "First Trimester". American Pregnancy Association. 1 May 2012. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009.
- ^ Pough et al. 1992. Herpetology: Third Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall:Pearson Education, Inc., 2002.
- ^ a b Macmillan Dictionary for Students Macmillan, Pan Ltd. (1981), page 173. Retrieved 2010-7-15.
- ISBN 978-0495600374. Archivedfrom the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved September 11, 2014.
- ^ "For girls, puberty begins around 10 or 11 years of age and ends around age 16. Boys enter puberty later than girls-usually around 12 years of age-and it lasts until around age 16 or 17." "Teenage Growth & Development: 11 to 14 Years". Palo Alto Medical Foundation/pamf.org. Archived from the original on 2018-04-05. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
- ^ "Teenage Growth & Development: 15 to 17 Years". Palo Alto Medical Foundation/pamf.org. Archived from the original on 2018-03-17. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
- University of Maryland. Archived from the originalon 2013-09-24. Retrieved December 8, 2020.
- ^ Marshall (1986), pp. 176–177[full citation needed]
- ^ Tanner, 1990.[full citation needed]
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- ^ Hamilton-Fairley, Diana. Obstetrics and Gynaecology (PDF). Lecture Notes (Second ed.). Blackwell Publishing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-10-09. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
- ^ Jorgensen & Keiding 1991.[full citation needed]
- ^ Alleyne, Richard (2010-06-13). "Girls now reaching puberty before 10—a year sooner than 20 years ago". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2010-06-14.
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- ^ a b Gat-Yablonski G, Phillip M. Nutritionally-induced catch-up growth. Nutrients 2015; 7(1): 517-51.
- ^ Kronenberg HM. Developmental regulation of the growth plate. Nature 2003; 423(6937): 332-6.
- ^ a b c Millward DJ. Nutrition, infection and stunting: the roles of deficiencies of individual nutrients and foods, and of inflammation, as determinants of reduced linear growth of children. Nutr Res Rev 2017; 30(1): 50-72.
- ^ Le Roith D. The insulin-like growth factor system. Exp Diabesity Res 2003; 4(4): 205-12.
- ^ Rajaram S, Baylink DJ, Mohan S. Insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins in serum and other biological fluids: regulation and functions. Endocr Rev 1997; 18(6): 801-31.
- ^ Daughaday WH. Growth hormone axis overview--somatomedin hypothesis. Pediatr Nephrol 2000; 14(7): 537-40.
- ^ DeBoer MD, Scharf RJ, Leite AM, et al. Systemic inflammation, growth factors, and linear growth in the setting of infection and malnutrition. Nutrition 2017; 33: 248-53.
- ^ Lui JC, Nilsson O, Baron J. Growth plate senescence and catch-up growth. Endocr Dev 2011; 21: 23-9.
- ^ Victora CG, Adair L, Fall C, et al. Maternal and child undernutrition: consequences for adult health and human capital. Lancet 2008; 371(9609): 340-57.
- ^ Adair LS, Fall CH, Osmond C, et al. Associations of linear growth and relative weight gain during early life with adult health and human capital in countries of low and middle income: findings from five birth cohort studies. Lancet 2013; 382(9891): 525-34.