Diet and obesity
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Dietary energy supply
The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted. The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time.[2] From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) has increased in all part of the world except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa. The United States had the highest availability with 3654 kilo calories per person in 1996.[3] This increased further in 2002 to 3770.[4] During the late 1990s, Europeans had 3394 kilo calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2648 kilo calories per person, and in sub-Sahara Africa people had 2176 kilo calories per person.[3][5]
Average calorie consumption
From 1971 to 2000, the average daily number of calories which women consumed in the United States increased by 335 calories per day (1542 calories in 1971 and 1877 calories in 2000). For men, the average increase was 168 calories per day (2450 calories in 1971 and 2618 calories in 2000). Most of these extra calories came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption, though there was also an increase in fat consumption over the same time period.
Fast food
As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense fast-food meals, the association between fast food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.[9] In the United States, consumption of fast food meals has tripled and calorie intake from fast food has quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.[10] Consumption of sweetened drinks is also believed to be a major contributor to the rising rates of obesity.[11]
Portion size
The portion size of many prepackage and restaurant foods has increased in both the United States and Denmark since the 1970s.[7] Fast food servings, for example, are 2 to 5 times larger than they were in the 1980s. Evidence has shown that larger portions of energy-dense foods lead to greater energy intake and thus to greater rates of obesity.[13][14]
Meat consumption
A 2010 study published in the
Sugar consumption
Drinking more sugary beverages (including
Reviews indicate that governmental health policies should be implemented to discourage intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, and reduce the obesity in children and adults. Obesity has been rising in the 21st century.[20][21][22][23] Other than adding excessive calories, the mechanisms by which high sugar consumption causes obesity are unclear because of limitations in clinical research involving uncontrolled factors, such as overall diet, physical activity, and sedentary lifestyle.[clarification needed][20][21][26]
Ultraprocessed food consumption
Numerous large studies have demonstrated that eating ultraprocessed food has a positive dose-dependent relationship with both abdominal obesity and general obesity in both men and women.[27] Consuming a diet rich in unprocessed and minimally processed foods is linked with lower obesity risk and less chronic disease. These results are consistent among American,[28] Canadian,[29] Latin American,[30] British,[31] Australian,[32] French,[33] and Spaniard populations.[34]
Particular processing ingredients used in ultraprocessed foods have been linked with increasing the risk of obesity further. Intake of
Similarly, heavy consumption of
Social policy and change
New agricultural technologies have led to an overall reduction in the cost of food relative to household income, especially in
Participation by adults in the
Metabolism
Evidence does not support the commonly expressed view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism. On average obese people have a greater energy expenditure than normal weight or thin people and actually have higher basal metabolic rates.[45][46] This is because it takes more energy to maintain an increased body mass.[47] Obese people also underreport how much food they consume compared to those of normal weight.[48] Tests of human subjects carried out in a calorimeter support this conclusion.[49]
See also
- Abdominal obesity
- Criticism of fast food
- List of countries by dietary calorie intake
References
- ^ a b "Compendium of food and agriculture indicators – 2006". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on August 2, 2008. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
- ^ "Compendium of food and agriculture indicators – 2006". UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on August 2, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ a b "Calories per capita per day". UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original (gif) on September 1, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "www.fao.org" (PDF). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "USDA: frsept99b". USDA. Archived from the original on June 3, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "In the Long Run" (PDF). USDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
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- ^ Lin BH, Guthrie J, Frazao E (1999). "Nutrient contribution of food away from home". In Frazão E (ed.). Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. pp. 213–239. Archived from the original on 2002-06-11. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
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- ^ "Portion Distortion I". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. 17 November 2004. p. 7 – via Wikimedia Commons.
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- ^ Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation (2003). "WHO Technical Report Series 916: Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases" (PDF). Retrieved 25 December 2013.
- ISBN 978-92-4-154902-8.
Increasing or decreasing free sugars is associated with parallel changes in body weight, and the relationship is present regardless of the level of intake of free sugars.
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- ^ Pollan M (22 April 2007). "You Are What You Grow". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
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- ^ Aubrey A (2016-07-18). "Does Subsidizing Crops We're Told To Eat Less Of Fatten Us Up?". NPR.org. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
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- ISBN 978-1-59745-400-1. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
- ^ Crowe T. "Monday's medical myth: 'my slow metabolism makes me fat'". Retrieved 15 November 2013.
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- ^ "mdPassport". Archived from the original on January 11, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2008.