Information Age

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Digital Revolution
)

A laptop connects to the Internet to display information from Wikipedia; long-distance communication between computer systems is a hallmark of the Information Age.

The Information Age (also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, Computer Age, Digital Age, Silicon Age, New Media Age, Internet Age, or the Digital Revolution

historical period that began in the mid-20th century to the early 21st century. It is characterized by a rapid shift from traditional industries, as established during the Industrial Revolution, to an economy centered on information technology.[2] The onset of the Information Age has been linked to the development of the transistor in 1947[2] and the optical amplifier in 1957.[3]
These technological advances have had a significant impact on the way information is processed and transmitted.

According to the

United Nations Public Administration Network, the Information Age was formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances,[4] which led to modernized information systems and internet communications as the driving force of social evolution.[5]

Many debate when the Third Industrial Revolution ended and the Fourth Industrial Revolution began, ranging from 2000 to 2020.[citation needed]

History

telegraph
.

Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer. Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication.[6]

The digital revolution converted technology from analog format to digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely.

The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music.

cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice.[8]

1947–1969: Origins

A Pennsylvania state historical marker in Philadelphia cites the creation of ENIAC, the "first all-purpose digital computer", in 1946 as the beginning of the Information Age.

In 1947, the first working

digital computers. From the late 1940s, universities, military, and businesses developed computer systems to digitally replicate and automate previously manually performed mathematical calculations, with the LEO
being the first commercially available general-purpose computer.

Other important technological developments included the invention of the monolithic

complementary MOS (CMOS) process by Frank Wanlass and Chih-Tang Sah at Fairchild in 1963.[13]

In 1962 AT&T deployed the T-carrier for long-haul pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital voice transmission. The T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64 kbit/s streams, leaving 8 kbit/s of framing information which facilitated the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. Over the subsequent decades the digitisation of voice became the norm for all but the last mile (where analogue continued to be the norm right into the late 1990s).

Following the development of

microcomputer revolution
that began in the 1970s.

MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor

MOS capacitor technology.[16]

1969–1989: Invention of the internet, rise of home computers

A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet (created via The Opte Project)

The public was first introduced to the concepts that led to the

protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking
, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.

The Whole Earth movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology.[18]

In the 1970s, the home computer was introduced,[19] time-sharing computers,[20] the video game console, the first coin-op video games,[21][22] and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data.

In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry.

Apple, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts)[23]
between 1982 and 1994.

In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%).[24] By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one.[citation needed] By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology.

Motorola created the first mobile phone,

Motorola DynaTac, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the 2G
network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s.

Compute! magazine predicted that CD-ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.[25]

The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States.[26] By the mid-2000s, digital cameras had eclipsed traditional film in popularity.

Digital ink was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989's The Little Mermaid and for all their animation films between 1990's The Rescuers Down Under and 2004's Home on the Range
.

1989–2005: Invention of the World Wide Web, mainstreaming of the Internet, Web 1.0

Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.[27]

The first public digital

1990 World Cup
that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However, HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan.

The

dial-up was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass Internet culture
was not possible.

In 1989, about 15% of all households in the United States owned a personal computer.[32] For households with children, nearly 30% owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000, 65% owned one.

much more advanced
than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games.

United States of America where text messaging didn't become commonplace till the early 2000s.[citation needed
]

The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the

developing world
in the 2000s.

By 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer and internet access the following year.[33] In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.[34]

2005–2020: Web 2.0, social media, smartphones, digital TV

In late 2005 the population of the

HDTV became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade. In September and December 2006 respectively, Luxembourg and the Netherlands became the first countries to completely transition from analog to digital television. In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having broadband internet at home.[36] According to estimates from the Nielsen Media Research, approximately 45.7 million U.S. households in 2006 (or approximately 40 percent of approximately 114.4 million) owned a dedicated home video game console,[37][38] and by 2015, 51 percent of U.S. households owned a dedicated home video game console according to an Entertainment Software Association annual industry report.[39][40] By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. Cloud computing had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a smartphone.[41] By 2016, half of the world's population was connected[42] and as of 2020, that number has risen to 67%.[43]

Rise in digital technology use of computers

In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.[44]

It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed)

zettabytes).[44][45]

1990

2000

  • Cell phone subscribers: 1.5 billion (19% of world population in 2002)[47]
  • Internet users: 631 million (11% of world population in 2002)[47]

2010

  • Cell phone subscribers: 4 billion (68% of world population in 2010)[48]
  • Internet users: 1.8 billion (26.6% of world population in 2010)[42]

2020

  • Cell phone subscribers: 4.78 billion (62% of world population in 2020)[49]
  • Internet users: 4.54 billion (59% of world population in 2020)[50]
A university computer lab containing many desktop PCs

Overview of early developments

A timeline of major milestones of the Information Age, from the first message sent by the Internet protocol suite to global Internet access

Library expansion and Moore's law

Library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years where sufficient space made available.[51] He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons and other institutions.

Rider did not foresee, however, the

storage, and transmission media, whereby vast increases in the rapidity of information growth would be made possible through automated, potentially-lossless digital technologies. Accordingly, Moore's law, formulated around 1965, would calculate that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years.[52][53]

By the early 1980s, along with improvements in

share and store it. Connectivity between computers within organizations enabled access to greater amounts of information.[citation needed
]

Information storage and Kryder's law

Hilbert & López (2011). The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information. Science, 332(6025), 60–65. https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.1200970

The world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally

zettabytes in 2014,[45] the informational equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun.[citation needed
]

The amount of

Kryder's law prescribes that the amount of storage space available appears to be growing approximately exponentially.[55][56][57][53]

Information transmission

The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way

zettabytes in 2000; and 1.9 zettabytes in 2007, the information equivalent of 174 newspapers per person per day.[44]

The world's effective capacity to

petabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986; 471 petabytes in 1993; 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000; and 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007, the information equivalent of six newspapers per person per day.[44] In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to and ability to share information in businesses and homes globally. A computer that cost $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year, due to the rapid advancement of technology.[citation needed
]

Computation

The world's technological capacity to compute information with human-guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 108

general-purpose computers
were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people).

Genetic information

Genetic code may also be considered part of the

information revolution. Now that sequencing has been computerized, genome can be rendered and manipulated as data. This started with DNA sequencing, invented by Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam[58] in 1976-1977 and Frederick Sanger in 1977, grew steadily with the Human Genome Project, initially conceived by Gilbert and finally, the practical applications of sequencing, such as gene testing, after the discovery by Myriad Genetics of the BRCA1 breast cancer gene mutation. Sequence data in Genbank has grown from the 606 genome sequences registered in December 1982 to the 231 million genomes in August 2021. An additional 13 trillion incomplete sequences are registered in the Whole Genome Shotgun submission database as of August 2021. The information contained in these registered sequences has doubled every 18 months.[59]

Different stage conceptualizations

During rare times in human history, there have been periods of innovation that have transformed human life. The Neolithic Age, the Scientific Age and the Industrial Age all, ultimately, induced discontinuous and irreversible changes in the economic, social and cultural elements of the daily life of most people. Traditionally, these epochs have taken place over hundreds, or in the case of the Neolithic Revolution, thousands of years, whereas the Information Age swept to all parts of the globe in just a few years, as a result of the rapidly advancing speed of information exchange.

Between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period, humans began to domesticate animals, began to farm grains and to replace stone tools with ones made of metal. These innovations allowed nomadic hunter-gatherers to settle down. Villages formed along the

hieroglyphs in Egypt in 3,500 B.C. and writing in Egypt in 2,560 B.C. and in Minoa
and China around 1,450 B.C.) enabled ideas to be preserved for extended periods to spread extensively. In all, Neolithic developments, augmented by writing as an information tool, laid the groundwork for the advent of civilization.

The Scientific Age began in the period between Galileo's 1543 proof that the planets orbit the Sun and Newton's publication of the laws of motion and gravity in Principia in 1697. This age of discovery continued through the 18th century, accelerated by widespread use of the moveable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg.

The Industrial Age began in Great Britain in 1760 and continued into the mid-19th century. The invention of machines such as the mechanical textile weaver by Edmund Cartwrite, the rotating shaft steam engine by James Watt and the cotton gin by Eli Whitney, along with processes for mass manufacturing, came to serve the needs of a growing global population. The Industrial Age harnessed steam and waterpower to reduce the dependence on animal and human physical labor as the primary means of production. Thus, the core of the Industrial Revolution was the generation and distribution of energy from coal and water to produce steam and, later in the 20th century, electricity.

The Information Age also requires electricity to power the global networks of computers that process and store data. However, what dramatically accelerated the pace of The Information Age’s adoption, as compared to previous ones, was the speed by which knowledge could be transferred and pervaded the entire human family in a few short decades. This acceleration came about with the adoptions of a new form of power. Beginning in 1972, engineers devised ways to harness light to convey data through fiber optic cable. Today, light-based optical networking systems at the heart of telecom networks and the Internet span the globe and carry most of the information traffic to and from users and data storage systems.

mobile phones. The Tertiary Information Age was emerged by media of the Primary Information Age interconnected with media of the Secondary Information Age as presently experienced.[60][61][62]

Stages of development expressed as Kondratiev waves

Others classify it in terms of the well-established

algorithms, which aims at creating automated processes to convert the existing information into actionable knowledge.[63]

Information in social and economic activities

The main feature of the information revolution is the growing economic, social and technological role of

came up when new informational inputs were produced by individual innovators, or by scientific and technical institutions. During the Information Revolution all these activities are experiencing continuous growth, while other information-oriented activities are emerging.

Information is the central theme of several new sciences, which emerged in the 1940s, including

Information Theory[65] and Wiener's (1948) Cybernetics. Wiener stated: "information is information not matter or energy". This aphorism suggests that information should be considered along with matter and energy as the third constituent part of the Universe; information is carried by matter or by energy.[66] By the 1990s some writers believed that changes implied by the Information revolution will lead to not only a fiscal crisis for governments but also the disintegration of all "large structures".[67]

The theory of information revolution

The term information revolution may relate to, or contrast with, such widely used terms as Industrial Revolution and Agricultural Revolution. Note, however, that you may prefer mentalist to materialist paradigm. The following fundamental aspects of the theory of information revolution can be given:[68][69]

  1. The object of economic activities can be conceptualized according to the fundamental distinction between matter, energy, and information. These apply both to the object of each economic activity, as well as within each economic activity or enterprise. For instance, an industry may process matter (e.g. iron) using energy and information (production and process technologies, management, etc.).
  2. Information is a
    labor, land (economics)), as well as a product sold in the market, that is, a commodity. As such, it acquires use value and exchange value, and therefore a price
    .
  3. All products have use value, exchange value, and informational value. The latter can be measured by the information content of the product, in terms of innovation, design, etc.
  4. Industries develop information-generating activities, the so-called
    R&D
    ) functions.
  5. Enterprises, and society at large, develop the information control and processing functions, in the form of management structures; these are also called "", "managerial functions", etc.
  6. Labor can be classified according to the object of labor, into information labor and non-information labor.
  7. Information activities constitute a large, new economic sector, the information sector along with the traditional
    quinary sector of the economy
    attempt to classify these new activities, but their definitions are not based on a clear conceptual scheme, although the latter is considered by some as equivalent with the information sector.
  8. From a strategic point of view, sectors can be defined as information sector,
    Marx stressed in many occasions the role of the "intellectual element" in production, but failed to find a place for it into his model.[71][72]
  9. Innovations are the result of the production of new information, as new products, new methods of production,
    business cycles". There are various types of waves, such as Kondratiev wave (54 years), Kuznets swing (18 years), Juglar cycle (9 years) and Kitchin (about 4 years, see also Joseph Schumpeter
    ) distinguished by their nature, duration, and, thus, economic impact.
  10. Diffusion of innovations causes structural-sectoral shifts in the economy, which can be smooth or can create crisis and renewal, a process which Joseph Schumpeter called vividly "creative destruction".

From a different perspective, Irving E. Fang (1997) identified six 'Information Revolutions': writing, printing, mass media, entertainment, the 'tool shed' (which we call 'home' now), and the information highway. In this work the term 'information revolution' is used in a narrow sense, to describe trends in communication media.[73]

Measuring and modeling the information revolution

Porat (1976) measured the information sector in the US using the

computer model.[68][69]

These works can be seen as following the path originated with the work of Fritz Machlup who in his (1962) book "The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States", claimed that the "knowledge industry represented 29% of the US gross national product", which he saw as evidence that the Information Age had begun. He defines knowledge as a commodity and attempts to measure the magnitude of the production and distribution of this commodity within a modern economy. Machlup divided information use into three classes: instrumental, intellectual, and pastime knowledge. He identified also five types of knowledge: practical knowledge; intellectual knowledge, that is, general culture and the satisfying of intellectual curiosity; pastime knowledge, that is, knowledge satisfying non-intellectual curiosity or the desire for light entertainment and emotional stimulation; spiritual or religious knowledge; unwanted knowledge, accidentally acquired and aimlessly retained.[75]

More recent estimates have reached the following results:[44]

  • the world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way
    broadcast
    networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 7% between 1986 and 2007;
  • the world's technological capacity to store information grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 25% between 1986 and 2007;
  • the world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way
    telecommunication
    networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 30% during the same two decades;
  • the world's technological capacity to compute information with the help of humanly guided general-purpose computers grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 61% during the same period.[76]

Economics

Eventually, Information and communication technology (ICT)—i.e. computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, the Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the world economy, as the development of optical networking and microcomputers greatly changed many businesses and industries.[77][78] Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital, in which he discusses the similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits.[79]

Jobs and income distribution

The Information Age has affected the

professors, scientists, executives, journalists, consultants), who are able to compete successfully in the world market and receive (relatively) high wages.[citation needed
]

Along with automation, jobs traditionally associated with the

job market, whereby wages are less dependent on the success or failure of individual economies.[81]

In effectuating a globalized workforce, the internet has just as well allowed for increased opportunity in developing countries, making it possible for workers in such places to provide in-person services, therefore competing directly with their counterparts in other nations. This competitive advantage translates into increased opportunities and higher wages.[82]

Automation, productivity, and job gain

The Information Age has affected the workforce in that

recession of March 2001 foreshadowed a sharp drop in the number of jobs in the sector. This pattern of decrease in jobs would continue until 2003,[84] and data has shown that, overall, technology creates more jobs than it destroys even in the short run.[85]

Information-intensive industry

Industry has become more information-intensive while less labor- and capital-intensive. This has left important implications for the workforce, as workers have become increasingly productive as the value of their labor decreases. For the system of capitalism itself, the value of labor decreases, the value of capital increases.

In the classical model, investments in human and financial capital are important predictors of the performance of a new venture.[86] However, as demonstrated by Mark Zuckerberg and Facebook, it now seems possible for a group of relatively inexperienced people with limited capital to succeed on a large scale.[87]

Innovations

A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet

The Information Age was enabled by technology developed in the

Technological Revolution
.

Transistors

The onset of the Information Age can be associated with the development of

complementary MOS (CMOS) fabrication process was developed by Frank Wanlass and Chih-Tang Sah in 1963.[90]

Computers

Before the advent of

Atanasoff–Berry Computer, Colossus computer, and ENIAC
.

The invention of the transistor enabled the era of mainframe computers (1950s–1970s), typified by the IBM 360. These large, room-sized computers provided data calculation and manipulation that was much faster than humanly possible, but were expensive to buy and maintain, so were initially limited to a few scientific institutions, large corporations, and government agencies.

The

silicon-gate MOS IC was later developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.[95] With the advent of the MOS transistor and the MOS IC, transistor technology rapidly improved
, and the ratio of computing power to size increased dramatically, giving direct access to computers to ever smaller groups of people.

The first commercial single-chip microprocessor launched in 1971, the

Along with electronic

manual, at first using punched cards and magnetic tape, and later floppy disks
.

Data

The first developments for storing data were initially based on photographs, starting with microphotography in 1851 and then microform in the 1920s, with the ability to store documents on film, making them much more compact. Early information theory and Hamming codes were developed about 1950, but awaited technical innovations in data transmission and storage to be put to full use.

NAND flash memory in 1987.[105][102]

Copper wire cables transmitting digital data connected

optical amplification and optical networking in the mid-1990s led to record data transfer rates. By 2018, optical networks routinely delivered 30.4 terabits/s over a fiber optic pair, the data equivalent of 1.2 million simultaneous 4K HD video streams.[106]

Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensors, which first began appearing in the late 1960s, led to the transition from analog to digital imaging, and from analog to digital cameras, during the 1980s–1990s. The most common image sensors are the charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor and the CMOS (complementary MOS) active-pixel sensor
(CMOS sensor).

Electronic paper, which has origins in the 1970s, allows digital information to appear as paper documents.

Personal computers

By 1976, there were several firms racing to introduce the first truly successful commercial personal computers. Three machines, the Apple II, Commodore PET 2001 and TRS-80 were all released in 1977,[108] becoming the most popular by late 1978.[109] Byte magazine later referred to Commodore, Apple, and Tandy as the "1977 Trinity".[110] Also in 1977, Sord Computer Corporation released the Sord M200 Smart Home Computer in Japan.[111]

Apple II

Apr. 1977: Apple II.

Steve Wozniak (known as "Woz"), a regular visitor to Homebrew Computer Club meetings, designed the single-board Apple I computer and first demonstrated it there. With specifications in hand and an order for 100 machines at US$500 each from the Byte Shop, Woz and his friend Steve Jobs founded Apple Computer.

About 200 of the machines sold before the company announced the Apple II as a complete computer. It had color graphics, a full QWERTY keyboard, and internal slots for expansion, which were mounted in a high quality streamlined plastic case. The monitor and I/O devices were sold separately. The original Apple II operating system was only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM. Apple DOS was added to support the diskette drive; the last version was "Apple DOS 3.3".

Its higher price and lack of

floating point BASIC, along with a lack of retail distribution sites, caused it to lag in sales behind the other Trinity machines until 1979, when it surpassed the PET. It was again pushed into 4th place when Atari introduced its popular Atari 8-bit systems.[112]

Despite slow initial sales, the lifetime of the Apple II series was about eight years longer than other machines, and so accumulated the highest total sales. By 1985, 2.1 million had sold and more than 4 million Apple II's were shipped by the end of its production in 1993.[113]

Optical networking

Digital Revolution
and Information Age.

The two core technologies are the optical fiber and light amplification (the

Imperial College
succeeded in making image-transmitting bundles with over 10,000 optical fibers, and subsequently achieved image transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which combined several thousand fibers.

Ciena Corp., the venture that popularized the optical amplifier with the introduction of the first dense wave division multiplexing system.[114] This massive scale communication technology has emerged as the common basis of all telecommunication networks[3] and, thus, a foundation of the Information Age.[115][116]

Economy, society and culture

Manuel Castells captures the significance of the Information Age in The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture when he writes of our global interdependence and the new relationships between economy, state and society, what he calls "a new society-in-the-making." He cautions that just because humans have dominated the material world, does not mean that the Information Age is the end of history:

"It is in fact, quite the opposite: history is just beginning, if by history we understand the moment when, after millennia of a prehistoric battle with Nature, first to survive, then to conquer it, our species has reached the level of knowledge and social organization that will allow us to live in a predominantly social world. It is the beginning of a new existence, and indeed the beginning of a new age, The Information Age, marked by the autonomy of culture vis-à-vis the material basis of our existence."[117]

Thomas Chatterton Williams wrote about the dangers of anti-intellectualism in the Information Age in a piece for The Atlantic. Although access to information has never been greater, most information is irrelevant or insubstantial. The Information Age's emphasis on speed over expertise contributes to "superficial culture in which even the elite will openly disparage as pointless our main repositories for the very best that has been thought."[118]

See also

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Further reading

External links