Digital camera
This article may be too technical for most readers to understand.(December 2019) |
A digital camera, also called a digicam,[1] is a camera that captures photographs in digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital,[2] largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film. Digital cameras are now widely incorporated into mobile devices like smartphones with the same or more capabilities and features of dedicated cameras (which are still available).[3] High-end, high-definition dedicated cameras are still commonly used by professionals and those who desire to take higher-quality photographs.[4]
Digital and digital movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device.[5] The diaphragm and shutter admit a controlled amount of light to the image, just as with film, but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other kinds of image editing.[6][7]
History
The first semiconductor image sensor was the
In the 1960s, Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was thinking about how to use a mosaic photosensor to capture digital images. His idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts' position.[14] As with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcock's film-less camera (US patent 4,057,830) in 1972,[15] the technology had yet to catch up with the concept.
In 1972, the Landsat 1 satellite's multispectral scanner (MSS) started taking digital images of Earth. The MSS, designed by Virginia Norwood at Hughes Aircraft Company starting in 1969, captured and transmitted image data from green, red, and two infrared bands with 6 bits per channel, using a mechanical rocking mirror and an array of 24 detectors. Operating for six years, it transmitted more than 300,000 digital photographs of Earth, while orbiting the planet about 14 times per day.
Also in 1972, Thomas McCord from MIT and James Westphal from Cal Tech together developed a digital camera for use with telescopes. Their 1972 "photometer-digitizer system" used an analog-to-digital converter and a digital frame memory to store 256 x 256-pixel images of planets and stars, which were then recorded on digital magnetic tape. CCD sensors were not yet commercially available, and the camera used a silicon diode vidicon tube detector which was cooled using dry ice to reduce dark current, allowing exposure times of up to one hour.
The
The first filmless SLR (single lens reflex) camera was publicly demonstrated by Sony in August 1981. The Sony "Mavica" (magnetic still video camera) used a color-striped 2/3" format CCD sensor with 280K pixels, along with analogue video signal processing and recording.[21] The Mavica electronic still camera recorded FM modulated analog video signals on a newly developed 2" magnetic floppy disk, dubbed the "Mavipak". The disk format was later standardized as the "Still Video Floppy", or "SVF".
The Canon RC-701, introduced in May 1986, was the first SVF camera (and the first electronic SLR camera) sold in the US. It employed an SLR viewfinder, included a 2/3" format color CCD sensor with 380K pixels, and was sold along with a removable 11-66mm and 50-150mm zoom lens.[22]
Over the next few years, many other companies began selling SVF cameras. These analog electronic cameras included the Nikon QV-1000C, which had an SLR viewfinder and a 2/3" format monochrome CCD sensor with 380K pixels, and recorded analog black and white images on a Still Video Floppy.[23][24]
At Photokina 1988, Fujifilm introduced the FUJIX DS-1P, the first fully digital camera, which recorded digital images using a semiconductor memory card. The camera's memory card had a capacity of 2 MB of SRAM (static random-access memory), and could hold up to ten photographs. In 1989, Fujifilm released the FUJIX DS-X, the first fully digital camera to be commercially released.[20] In 1996, Toshiba's 40 MB flash memory card was adopted for several digital cameras.[25]
The first commercial
Image sensors
The two major types of digital image sensors are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier.
Sensor resolution
The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a
Resolution options
Firmwares' resolution selector allows the user to optionally lower the resolution, to reduce the file size per picture, and extend lossless
A lower resolution extends the number of remaining photos in free space, postponing the exhaustion of space storage, which is of use where no further data storage device is available, and for captures of lower significance, where the benefit from less space storage consumption outweighs the disadvantage from reduced detail.[35]
Image sharpness
An image's sharpness is presented through the crisp detail, defined lines, and its depicted contrast. Sharpness is a factor of multiple systems throughout the DSLR camera by its ISO, resolution, lens and the lens settings, the environment of the image, and its post-processing. Images have a possibility of being too sharp but they can never be too in focus.
A digital camera resolution is determined by a digital sensor. The digital sensor indicates a high level of sharpness can be produced through the amount of noise and grain that is tolerated through the lens of the camera. Resolution within the field of digital still and digital movies is indicated through the camera's ability to determine detail based on the distance which is then measured by frame size, pixel type, number, and organization although some DSLR cameras have resolutions limited, it is almost impossible to not have the proper sharpness for an image. The ISO choice when taking a photo affects the quality of the image as high ISO settings equate to an image that is less sharp due to the increased amount of noise allowed into the image along with too little noise can also produce an image that is not sharp.[36]
Methods of image capture
CMOS image sensor.
Since the first digital backs were introduced, there have been three main methods of capturing the image, each based on the hardware configuration of the sensor and color filters. Single-shot capture systems use either one sensor chip with a primary additive colors red, green, and blue) which are exposed to the same image via a beam splitter (see Three-CCD camera ).
Multi-shot exposes the sensor to the image in a sequence of three or more openings of the lens aperture. There are several methods of application of the multi-shot technique. The most common was originally to use a single image sensor with three filters passed in front of the sensor in sequence to obtain the additive color information. Another multiple-shot method is called microscanning. This method uses a single sensor chip with a Bayer filter and physically moves the sensor on the focus plane of the lens to construct a higher resolution image than the native resolution of the chip. A third version combines these two methods without a Bayer filter on the chip. The third method is called scanning because the sensor moves across the focal plane much like the sensor of an color co-site sampling) or by rotating the whole camera. A digital rotating line camera offers images consisting of a total resolution that is very high.
The choice of method for a given capture is determined largely by the subject matter. It is usually inappropriate to attempt to capture a subject that moves with anything but a single-shot system. However, the higher color fidelity and larger file sizes and resolutions that are available with multi-shot and scanning backs make them more attractive for commercial photographers who are working with stationary subjects and large-format photographs.[original research?] Improvements in single-shot cameras and image file processing at the beginning of the 21st century made single-shot cameras almost completely dominant, even in high-end commercial photography. Filter mosaics, interpolation, and aliasingMost current [timeframe?] consumer digital cameras use a Bayer filter mosaic in combination with an optical anti-aliasing filter to reduce the aliasing due to the reduced sampling of the different primary-color images. A demosaicing algorithm is used to interpolate color information to create a full array of RGB image data. Cameras that use a beam-splitter single-shot 3CCD approach, three-filter multi-shot approach, color co-site sampling or Foveon X3 sensor do not use anti-aliasing filters, nor demosaicing.
Adobe Camera Raw, interprets the raw data from the sensor to obtain a full-color image, because the RGB color model requires three intensity values for each pixel: one each for the red, green, and blue (other color models, when used, also require three or more values per pixel).
A single sensor element cannot simultaneously record these three intensities, so a color filter array (CFA) must be used to selectively filter a particular color for each pixel.
The Bayer filter pattern is a repeating 2x2 mosaic pattern of light filters, with green ones at opposite corners and red and blue in the other two positions. The high proportion of green takes advantage of the properties of the human visual system, which determines brightness mostly from green and is far more sensitive to brightness than to hue or saturation. Sometimes a 4-color filter pattern is used, often involving two different hues of green. This provides potentially more accurate color, but requires a slightly more complicated interpolation process.[37] The color intensity values not captured for each pixel can be interpolated from the values of adjacent pixels which represent the color being calculated.[38]
Sensor size and angle of viewCameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35 mm film size have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length . This is because the angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.
The Full-frame digital SLRs utilize a sensor of the same size as a frame of 35 mm film.
Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs using active pixel sensors include 1.3x for some bridge cameras are larger, frequently 4x or more.
Sensor resolutionThe photosites, or a surface that is 50 times larger. [40]
Types of digital camerasDigital cameras come in a wide range of sizes, prices, and capabilities. In addition to general-purpose digital cameras, specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs are used for scientific, military, medical, and other special purposes.
|
Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) is a camera with a digital sensor that utilizes a reflex mirror to split or direct light into the viewfinder to produce an image.[60] The reflex mirror finds the image by blocking light to the camera's sensor and then reflecting it into the camera's pentaprism which allows it to be seen through the viewfinder.[60] When the shutter release is fully pressed the reflex mirror pulls out horizontally below the pentaprism briefly darkening the viewfinder and then opening up the sensor for exposure which creates the photo.[60] The digital image is produced by the sensor which is an array of photoreceptors on a microchip capable of recording light values. Many modern DSLRs offer the ability for "live view" or the framing of the subject emitted from the sensor onto a digital screen, and many have a hotshoe.
The sensor also known as a full-frame sensor is much larger than the other types, typically 18mm to 36mm on the diagonal (crop factor 2, 1.6, or 1).
Digital Still Cameras (DSC)
Digital Still Camera (DSC), such as the Sony DSC cameras, is a type of camera that does not use a reflex mirror. DSCs are like point-and-shoot cameras and are the most common type of cameras, due to their comfortable price and its quality.[citation needed]
Here are a list of DSCs: List of Sony Cyber-shot cameras
Fixed-mirror DSLT cameras
Cameras with fixed semi-transparent mirrors, also known as DSLT cameras, such as the
Digital rangefinders
A rangefinder is a device to measure subject distance, with the intent to adjust the focus of a camera's objective lens accordingly (open-loop controller). The rangefinder and lens focusing mechanism may or may not be coupled. In common parlance, the term "rangefinder camera" is interpreted very narrowly to denote manual-focus cameras with a visually-read out optical rangefinder based on parallax. Most digital cameras achieve focus through analysis of the image captured by the objective lens and distance estimation, if it is provided at all, is only a byproduct of the focusing process (closed-loop controller).[62]
Line-scan camera systems
A line-scan camera traditionally has a single row of
Multiple rows of sensors may be used to make colored images, or to increase sensitivity by TDI (time delay and integration).
Many industrial applications require a wide field of view. Traditionally maintaining consistent light over large 2D areas is quite difficult. With a line scan camera all that is necessary is to provide even illumination across the "line" currently being viewed by the camera. This makes sharp pictures of objects that pass the camera at high speed.
Such cameras are also commonly used to make photo finishes, to determine the winner when multiple competitors cross the finishing line at nearly the same time. They can also be used as industrial instruments for analyzing fast processes.
Line-scan cameras are also extensively used in imaging from satellites (see push broom scanner). In this case the row of sensors is perpendicular to the direction of satellite motion. Line-scan cameras are widely used in scanners. In this case, the camera moves horizontally.
Superzoom cameras
Digital
The HX series is a series containing Sony's superzoom cameras like HX20V, HX90V and the newest HX99. HX stands for HyperXoom.
Light-field camera
This type of digital camera captures information about the light field emanating from a scene; that is, the intensity of light in a scene, and also the direction that the light rays are traveling in space. This contrasts with a conventional digital camera, which records only light intensity.
Event camera
Instead of measuring the intensity of light over some predetermined time interval (the exposure time), event cameras detect when the intensity of light changes by some threshold for each pixel independently, usually with microsecond precision.
Integration into other devices
Many devices have a built-in digital camera, including, for example, smartphones, mobile phones, PDAs and laptop computers. Built-in cameras generally store the images in the JPEG file format.
Mobile phones incorporating digital cameras were introduced in Japan in 2001 by J-Phone. In 2003 camera phones outsold stand-alone digital cameras, and in 2006 they outsold film and digital stand-alone cameras. Five billion camera phones were sold in five years, and by 2007 more than half of the installed base of all mobile phones were camera phones. Sales of separate cameras peaked in 2008.[66]
Notable digital camera manufacturers
There are many manufacturers that lead in the production of digital cameras (commonly DSLRs). Each brand embodies different mission statements that differ them from each other outside of the physical technology that they produce. While the majority of manufacturers share modern features amongst their production of cameras, some specialize in specific details either physically on camera or within the system and image quality.
Market trends
Sales of traditional digital cameras have declined due to the increasing use of smartphones for casual photography, which also enable easier manipulation and sharing of photos through the use of apps and web-based services. "Bridge cameras", in contrast, have held their ground with functionality that most smartphone cameras lack, such as optical zoom and other advanced features.[67][68] DSLRs have also lost ground to Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC)s offering the same sensor size in a smaller camera. A few expensive ones use a full-frame sensor, just like DSLR professional cameras.
In response to the convenience and flexibility of smartphone cameras, some manufacturers produced "smart" digital cameras that combine features of traditional cameras with those of a smartphone. In 2012, Nikon and Samsung released the
In an inversion, some phone makers have introduced smartphones with cameras designed to resemble traditional digital cameras. Nokia released the
After a big dip of sales in 2012, consumer digital camera sales declined again in 2013 by 36 percent. In 2011, compact digital cameras sold 10 million per month. In 2013, sales fell to about 4 million per month. DSLR and MILC sales also declined in 2013 by 10–15% after almost ten years of double digit growth.[74] Worldwide unit sales of digital cameras is continuously declining from 148 million in 2011 to 58 million in 2015 and tends to decrease more in the following years.[75]
Film camera sales hit their peak at about 37 million units in 1997, while digital camera sales began in 1989. By 2008, the film camera market had died and digital camera sales hit their peak at 121 million units in 2010. In 2002, cell phones with an integrated camera had been introduced and in 2003 the cell phone with an integrated camera had sold 80 million units per year. By 2011, cell phones with an integrated camera were selling hundreds of millions per year, which were causing a decline in digital cameras. In 2015, digital camera sales were 35 million units or only less than a third of digital camera sales numbers at their peak and also slightly less than film camera sold number at their peak.[citation needed]
Connectivity
Transferring photos
Many digital cameras can connect directly to a computer to transfer data:-
- Early cameras used the FireWire port. Some cameras use USB PTPmode for connection instead of USB MSC; some offer both modes.
- Other cameras use Wi-Fi integrated Memory cards (SDHC, SDXC) can transmit stored images, video and other files to computers or smartphones. Mobile operating systems such as Android allow automatic upload and backup or sharing of images over Wi-Fi to photo sharing and cloud services.
- Cameras with integrated Wi-Fi or specific Wi-Fi adapters mostly allow camera control, especially shutter release, exposure control and more (tethering) from computer or smartphone apps additionally to the transfer of media data.
- Cameraphones and some high-end stand-alone digital cameras also use cellular networks to connect for sharing images. The most common standard on cellular networks is the MMS Multimedia Messaging Service, commonly called "picture messaging". The second method with smartphones is to send a picture as an email attachment. Many old cameraphones, however, do not support email.
A common alternative is the use of a card reader which may be capable of reading several types of storage media, as well as high speed transfer of data to the computer. Use of a card reader also avoids draining the camera battery during the download process. An external card reader allows convenient direct access to the images on a collection of storage media. But if only one storage card is in use, moving it back and forth between the camera and the reader can be inconvenient. Many computers have a card reader built in, at least for SD cards.
Printing photos
Many modern cameras support the
Wireless connectivity can also provide for printing photos without a cable connection.
An instant-print camera, is a digital camera with a built-in printer.[76] This confers a similar functionality as an instant camera which uses instant film to quickly generate a physical photograph. Such non-digital cameras were popularized by Polaroid with the SX-70 in 1972.[77]
Displaying photos
Many digital cameras include a video output port. Usually
In January 2008,
Some DVD recorders and television sets can read memory cards used in cameras; alternatively several types of flash card readers have TV output capability.
Weather-sealing and waterproofing
Cameras can be equipped with a varying amount of environmental sealing to provide protection against splashing water, moisture (humidity and fog), dust and sand, or complete waterproofness to a certain depth and for a certain duration. The latter is one of the approaches to allow underwater photography, the other approach being the use of waterproof housings. Many waterproof digital cameras are also shockproof and resistant to low temperatures.
Some waterproof cameras can be fitted with a waterproof housing to increase the operational depth range. The Olympus 'Tough' range of compact cameras is an example.
Modes
Many digital cameras have preset
Few cameras are equipped with a voice note (audio-only) recording feature.[79]
Scene modes
Vendors implement a variety scene modes in cameras' firmwares for various purposes, such as a "landscape mode" which prevents focusing on rainy and/or stained window glass such as a windshield, and a "sports mode" which reduces motion blur of moving subjects by reducing exposure time with the help of increased light sensitivity. Firmwares may be equipped with the ability to select a suitable scene mode automatically through artificial intelligence.[80][81]
Image data storage
Many camera phones and most stand alone digital cameras store image data in flash memory cards or other
The approximate count of remaining photos until space exhaustion is calculated by the firmware throughout use and indicated in the viewfinder, to prepare the user for an impending necessary
A few cameras used other removable storage such as
- Onboard (internal) flash memory — Cheap cameras and cameras secondary to the device's main use (such as a camera phone). Some have small capacities such as 100 Megabytes and less, where intended use is buffer storage for uninterrupted operation during a memory card hot swap.[85]
- SuperDisk (LS120) used in two Panasonic digital cameras, the PV-SD4090[86] and PV-SD5000,[87] which allowed them to use both SuperDisk and 3.5" floppy disks
- PC Card hard drives — early professional cameras (discontinued)
- Thermal printer— known only in one model of camera that printed images immediately rather than storing
- Zink technology — printing images immediately rather than storing
- Agfa ePhoto CL30 Clik!
-
Microdrive (CF-II)
-
3.5" floppy disks
-
Sony's Proprietary Memory Stick
Most manufacturers of digital cameras do not provide drivers and software to allow their cameras to work with
File formats
The Joint Photography Experts Group standard (JPEG) is the most common file format for storing image data. Other file types include Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) and various Raw image formats.
Many cameras, especially high-end ones, support a raw image format. A raw image is the unprocessed set of pixel data directly from the camera's sensor, often saved in a
Raw files initially had to be processed in specialized image editing programs, but over time many mainstream editing programs, such as Google's Picasa, have added support for raw images. Rendering to standard images from raw sensor data allows more flexibility in making major adjustments without losing image quality or retaking the picture.
Formats for movies are
Other formats that are used in cameras (but not for pictures) are the Design Rule for Camera Format (
Most cameras include
Directory and file structure
In order to guarantee
Media with a capacity of more than 2 GB must be formatted using FAT32 or exFAT.The
DCF 2.0 adds support for DCF optional files recorded in an optional color space (that is,
Thumbnail files
To enable loading many images in miniature view quickly and efficiently, and to retain
.THM
.[90] JPEG can already store a thumbnail image standalone.[91]Batteries
Digital cameras have become smaller over time, resulting in an ongoing need to develop a
Digital cameras utilize either proprietary or standard consumer batteries. As of March 2014[update], most cameras use proprietary lithium-ion batteries while some use standard AA batteries or primarily use a proprietary Lithium-ion rechargeable battery pack but have an optional AA battery holder available.
Proprietary
The most common class of battery used in digital cameras is proprietary battery formats. These are built to a manufacturer's custom specifications. Almost all proprietary batteries are lithium-ion. In addition to being available from the
Standard consumer batteries
Digital cameras that utilize off-the-shelf batteries are typically designed to be able to use both single-use
Some battery grips for DSLRs come with a separate holder to accommodate AA cells as an external power source.
Conversion of film cameras to digital
When digital cameras became common, many photographers asked whether their
Many early professional SLR cameras, such as the Kodak DCS series, were developed from 35 mm film cameras. The technology of the time, however, meant that rather than being digital "backs" the bodies of these cameras were mounted on large, bulky digital units, often bigger than the camera portion itself. These were factory built cameras, however, not aftermarket conversions.
A notable exception is the
A few 35 mm cameras have had
The very large sensor these backs use leads to enormous image sizes. For example, Phase One's P45 39 MP image back creates a single TIFF image of size up to 224.6 MB, and even greater pixel counts are available. Medium format digitals such as this are geared more towards studio and
Digital camera backs
In the industrial and high-end professional photography market, some camera systems use modular (removable) image sensors. For example, some medium format SLR cameras, such as the Mamiya 645D series, allow installation of either a digital camera back or a traditional photographic film back.
- Area array
- CCD
- CMOS
- Linear array
- CCD (monochrome)
- 3-strip CCD with color filters
Linear array cameras are also called scan backs.
- Single-shot
- Multi-shot (three-shot, usually)
Most earlier digital camera backs used linear array sensors, moving vertically to
Some other camera backs use CCD arrays similar to typical cameras. These are called single-shot backs.
Since it is much easier to manufacture a high-quality linear CCD array with only thousands of pixels than a CCD matrix with millions, very high resolution linear CCD camera backs were available much earlier than their CCD matrix counterparts. For example, you could buy an (albeit expensive) camera back with over 7,000 pixel horizontal resolution in the mid-1990s. However, as of 2004[update], it is still difficult to buy a comparable CCD matrix camera of the same resolution. Rotating line cameras, with about 10,000 color pixels in its sensor line, are able, as of 2005[update], to capture about 120,000 lines during one full 360 degree rotation, thereby creating a single digital image of 1,200 Megapixels.
Most modern digital camera backs use CCD or CMOS matrix sensors. The matrix sensor captures the entire image frame at once, instead of incrementing scanning the frame area through the prolonged exposure. For example,
See also
- List of digital camera brands
- Computational photography
- DigitaOS
- Magic Lantern (firmware)
- Smart camera
- Video camera
- Digital signal processor
- Vision processing unit
- Image sensor
Notes
- ^ JPEG is a lossy compression format with less colour depth than typical of raw formats; however, most raw formats require demosaicing ("raw converter") software to be viewed properly.
References
- ^ "The Perfect Vintage Digicam for Travel". 8 September 2023.
- ^ Musgrove, Mike (2006-01-12). "Nikon Says It's Leaving Film-Camera Business". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2008-10-13. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ Cooke, Alex (2017-10-30). "Nikon Closes China Camera Factory, Cites Smartphones as Cause". Fstoppers. Archived from the original on 2019-10-23. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
- ISBN 978-0-240-52024-7, archivedfrom the original on 2021-10-10, retrieved 2021-10-10
- ^ "How Does A Digital Camera Work? [Technology Explained]". MUO. 2009-10-19. Archived from the original on 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
- ISBN 978-1-937986-79-7– via Google Books.
- ^ Zhang, Michael (March 2, 2011). "Panasonic Lumix FX77 Can Whiten Teeth and Apply Makeup to Faces". PetaPixel.
- ISBN 978-0-8194-3698-6.
- ISBN 978-3-319-49088-5.
- S2CID 108450116.
- ^ S2CID 10556755.
- S2CID 18831792.
- .
- ISBN 978-1-4419-0953-4.
- ^ "Electronic photography system".
- ^ Benchoff, Brian (17 April 2016). "Building the First Digital Camera". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
the Cyclops was the first digital camera
- ISBN 978-2-940411-04-7. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ DOBBIN, BEN (2005-09-09). "Kodak engineer had revolutionary idea: the first digital camera". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
- ^ Estrin, James (August 12, 2015). "Kodak's First Digital Moment". The New York Times. Retrieved February 6, 2018.
- ^ a b "Innovation: FUJIX DS-1P: the world's first digital camera". Fujifilm. Archived from the original on 2020-10-27.
- from the original on 2023-03-19. Retrieved 2023-03-20.
- ^ Callahan, Sean (June 1986). "The future arrives - Canon RC-701". Popular Photography. 93 (7): 62–63.
- ISBN 978-1-118-08023-8.
- S2CID 110114088.
- ^ "Toshiba | Business to Business Integrated Solutions". www.toshiba.com. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
- ^ a b c "Camera phones: A look back and forward". Computerworld. 11 May 2012. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
- ^ "First mobile videophone introduced". CNN. May 18, 1999. Archived from the original on 25 August 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
- ^ a b "From J-Phone to Lumia 1020: A complete history of the camera phone". Digital Trends. August 11, 2013. Archived from the original on 14 September 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
- ^ "Evolution of the Camera phone: From Sharp J-SH04 to Nokia 808 Pureview". Hoista.net. 2012-02-28. Archived from the original on 2013-07-31. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
- ^ "Taking pictures with your phone". BBC News. BBC. 18 September 2001. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
- ^ AU, Samsung (2018-02-21). "How mobile photography technology has evolved over two decades of phone cameras". Mashable. Archived from the original on 2022-12-27. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
- ^ "What Is the Difference Between a CCD and CMOS Video Camera". Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-4200-2685-6.
- ^ Joshua Goldman. "Why the iPhone 4 takes good low-light photos: BSI CMOS sensors explained!". Archived from the original on September 28, 2014. Retrieved September 29, 2014.
- ^ "Advantages and Disadvantages of Low vs High Resolution Cameras". Photography Life. 19 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
- )
- S2CID 31560384.
- ^ Malvar, Henrique (2004). High Quality Linear Interpolation for Demosaicing of Bayer-Patterned Color Images.
- ^ Bockaert, Vincent. "Sensor sizes". Digital Photography Review. Archived from the original on 2013-01-05. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
- OCLC 975225434.
- ^ Ken Rockwell. "Nikon 18-300mm VR DX AF-S G ED NIKKOR, $1,000". Archived from the original on February 17, 2014. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
- ^ Panasonic DMC FT3 Specification Archived 2015-01-02 at the Wayback Machine. Cameras.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-08-16.
- ^ "Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W3 review: Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W3".
- ^ "Sony DSC-QX100 and QX10 lens cameras bring top-notch optics to any smartphone or tablet, we go hands-on (video)". September 4, 2013. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
- ^ Jon Stapley (2022-05-17). "The best waterproof camera in 2022: underwater cameras for fun and action". digitalcameraworld. Archived from the original on 2022-05-22. Retrieved 2022-06-09.
- ^ Simon Crisp (July 19, 2016). "Big plans for "world's smallest" 360-degree camera". Archived from the original on July 20, 2016. Retrieved July 20, 2016.
- ^ Sean O'Kane (January 9, 2016). "Nikon's new action camera could change the market in a big way This is the year action cameras and 360-degree videos collide". Archived from the original on January 8, 2017. Retrieved June 3, 2017.
- ^ Gannon Burgnett. "What's a mirrorless camera and what makes it different from a DSLR?". Digital Trends. Archived from the original on February 18, 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2019.
- ^ Andy Westlake (September 15, 2016). "The rise of mirrorless compact system cameras". Archived from the original on October 30, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2016.
- ^ Andy Westlake. "Kodak Pixpro S-1 First Impressions Review". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved September 30, 2014.
- ^ Lawler, Richard (March 13, 2014). "Nikon 1 V3 camera unveiled: $1,200, 120fps slow motion, 20fps continuous shooting". Engadget. AOL. Archived from the original on March 20, 2014. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
- ^ "Polaroid offers first Android camera with interchangeable lenses". January 8, 2013. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
- ^ Mariella Moon (January 31, 2014). "Sony upgrades smartphone-pairing QX10 and QX100 lens cameras with higher ISO and 1080p video capture". Archived from the original on September 9, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
- ^ "Sony introduces QX1 with APS-C sensor and E-mount for smartphones". September 3, 2014. Archived from the original on April 17, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
- ^ "Smartphone-Kameramodule QX1 und QX30 von Sony (aktualisiert)". 30 November 2001. Archived from the original on 4 August 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
- ^ Simon Crisp (January 18, 2014). "Kodak smart lens cameras try to take on Sony". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
- ^ "Sakar shows QX-style, Vivitar-branded modular smart camera". January 14, 2014. Archived from the original on December 12, 2019. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
- ^ Edgar Alvarez (February 5, 2015). "Olympus Air is a lens camera that pairs with your smartphone". Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
- ^ Michael Zhang (15 December 2014). "Olympus Showing Off New 'Lens Camera' Prototypes with a Rounded Design". Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved February 9, 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-240-81720-0.
- ^ "[Lesson 2] Knowing the Different Parts of the Camera". SNAPSHOT - Canon Singapore Pte. Ltd. Archived from the original on 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
- ^ Wing, Michael. Comparing Digital Range Finders for Forestry Applications. 2004.
- ISBN 978-3-527-41365-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-15. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
- .
- ISBN 0-08-047853-0. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- from the original on 2017-11-07. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
- ^ a b Pogue, David (19 December 2012). "Smile, and Say 'Android'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ "Bridge cameras a growing market says Canon and Nikon". February 20, 2013. Archived from the original on March 27, 2013. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
- ^ "Nokia Lumia 1020 preview: Take two". GSMArena. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ "Nokia Lumia 1020 vs. Galaxy S4 Zoom: The Best Camera Phone Is…". Laptop. 14 August 2013. Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
- ^ Lars Rehm (September 15, 2014). "Panasonic announces Lumix DMC-CM1 smartphone with 1-inch sensor". Archived from the original on December 18, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
- ^ "Huawei P20 Pro". Archived from the original on July 21, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2018.
- ^ Andy Boxall (June 4, 2018). "Huawei P20 Pro review". Archived from the original on July 5, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2018.
- ^ Andrew Reid (26 October 2013). "Consumer DSLRs "dead in 5 years"". Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
- ^ "Worldwide unit sales of digital cameras from 2011 to 2016 (in millions)". Archived from the original on March 28, 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
- ^ William Sawalich (2016-03-28). "Options For Instant-Print Cameras". Digital Photo Magazine. Archived from the original on 2017-11-07. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
- from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-24.
- ^ "Mobile High-Definition Link Technology Gives Consumers the Ability to Link Mobile Devices to HDTVs with Support for Audio and Video". Silicon Image. January 7, 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
- ^ Mansurov, Nasim (2019). "Understanding Digital Camera Modes". Archived from the original on 2012-10-05.
- ^ "Scene Mode". Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
- ^ "Canon Knowledge Base - Switching Shooting Modes and Scene (SCN) Modes (PowerShot SX60 HS)". support.usa.canon.com. Archived from the original on 2021-08-24. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
- ^ "Sony Announces World's First XQD Memory Cards". 6 January 2012. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved January 8, 2012.
- ^ Tse, Kenneth (2009). Analyzing Storage Media of Digital Camera.
- ^ "American Photo".
- ^ "Operating Instructions Digital Camera Model No. DMC-FS5 DMC-FS3" (PDF). Panasonic. p. 19.
- ^ "Digital Camera Operating Instructions Model No. PV-SD4090" (PDF). Panasonic. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
- ^ "Digital Camera Operating Instructions Model No. PV-SD5000" (PDF). Panasonic. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
- ^ JEIDA/JEITA/CIPA (2010). "Standard of the Camera & Imaging Products Association, CIPA DC-009-Translation-2010, Design rule for Camera File system: DCF Version 2.0 (Edition 2010)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-30. Retrieved 2011-04-13.
- ^ a b Standard of the Camera & Imaging Products Association, CIPA DC- 009-Translation- 2010, Design rule for Camera File system: DCF Version 2.0 (Edition 2010) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-30, retrieved 2011-04-13
- ^ "What are THM files?". October 2006. Archived from the original on 2021-04-26. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
- ^ "Description of Exif file format". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1999-12-28. Archived from the original on 2021-04-26. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
External links
- History of the digital camera and digital imaging, Digital Camera Museum