Dirty bomb
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A dirty bomb or radiological dispersal device is a
Dirty bombs have never been used, only tested. They are designed to disperse radioactive material over a certain area. They act through the effects of
Effect of a dirty bomb explosion
When dealing with the implications of a dirty bomb attack, there are two main areas to be addressed: the
- Differences between dirty bombs and fission bombs
Dirty bomb
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Fission bomb
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Source: Adapted from Levi MA, Kelly HC. "Weapons of mass disruption". Sci Am. 2002 Nov;287(5):76-81.[6]
Accidents with radioactives
The effects of uncontrolled radioactive contamination have been reported several times.
One example is the
The Goiânia incident to some extent predicts the contamination pattern if it is not immediately realized that the explosion spread radioactive material, but also how fatal even very small amounts of ingested radioactive powder can be.[8] This raises worries of terrorists using powdered alpha emitting material, that if ingested can pose a serious health risk,[9] as in the case of Alexander Litvinenko, who was poisoned by tea with polonium-210. "Smoky bombs" based on alpha emitters might easily be just as dangerous as beta or gamma emitting dirty bombs.[10]
Public perception of risks
Although the exposure might be minimal, many people find radiation exposure especially frightening because it is something they cannot see or feel, and it therefore becomes an unknown source of danger.
[A] radioactive "dirty bomb" ... spreads radioactive material that is highly toxic to humans and can cause mass death and injury.
— Attorney General John Ashcroft[8]
This public fear of radiation also plays a big role in why the costs of a radiological dispersal device impact on a major metropolitan area (such as lower Manhattan) might be equal to or even larger than that of the 9/11 attacks.
Dirty bombs and terrorism
Since the
Constructing and obtaining material for a dirty bomb
In order for a terrorist organization to construct and detonate a dirty bomb, it must acquire radioactive material. Possible radiological dispersal device material could come from the millions of radioactive sources used worldwide in the industry, for medical purposes and in academic applications mainly for research.
Although a terrorist organization might obtain radioactive material through the "black market",[23] and there has been a steady increase in illicit trafficking of radioactive sources from 1996 to 2004, these recorded trafficking incidents mainly refer to rediscovered orphan sources without any sign of criminal activity,[17] and it has been argued that there is no conclusive evidence for such a market.[24] In addition to the hurdles of obtaining usable radioactive material, there are several conflicting requirements regarding the properties of the material the terrorists need to take into consideration: First, the source should be "sufficiently" radioactive to create direct radiological damage at the explosion or at least to perform societal damage or disruption. Second, the source should be transportable with enough shielding to protect the carrier, but not so much that it will be too heavy to maneuver. Third, the source should be sufficiently dispersible to effectively contaminate the area around the explosion.[25]
Possibility of use by terrorist groups
The first attempt of radiological terror was reportedly carried out in November 1995 by a group of Chechen separatists, who buried a caesium-137 source wrapped in explosives at the Izmaylovsky Park in Moscow. A Chechen rebel leader alerted the media, the bomb was never activated, and the incident amounted to a mere publicity stunt.[26][21] In December 1998, a second attempt was announced by the Chechen Security Service, who discovered a container filled with radioactive materials attached to an explosive mine. The bomb was hidden near a railway line in the suburban area Argun, ten miles east of the Chechen capital of Grozny. The same Chechen separatist group was suspected to be involved.[27][21]
On 8 May 2002,
In 2006,
In January 2009, a leaked FBI report described the results of a search of the Maine home of James G. Cummings, a white supremacist who had been shot and killed by his wife. Investigators found four one-gallon containers of 35 percent hydrogen peroxide, uranium, thorium, lithium metal, aluminum powder, beryllium, boron, black iron oxide and magnesium as well as literature on how to build dirty bombs and information about caesium-137, strontium-90 and cobalt-60, radioactive materials.[31] Officials confirmed the veracity of the report but stated that the public was never at risk.[32]
In July 2014,
Terrorist organizations may also capitalize on the fear of radiation to create weapons of mass disruption rather than weapons of mass destruction. A fearful public response may in itself accomplish the goals of a terrorist organization to gain publicity or destabilize society.[35] Even simply stealing radioactive materials may trigger a panic reaction from the general public. Similarly, a small-scale release of radioactive materials or a threat of such a release may be considered sufficient for a terror attack.[35] Particular concern is directed towards the medical sector and healthcare sites which are "intrinsically more vulnerable than conventional licensed nuclear sites".[35] Opportunistic attacks may range to even kidnapping patients whose treatment involve radioactive materials. Of note is the public reaction to the Goiânia accident, in which over 100,000 people admitted themselves to monitoring, while only 49 were admitted to hospitals. Other benefits to a terrorist organization of a dirty bomb include economic disruption in the area affected, abandonment of affected assets (such a buildings, subways) due to public concern, and international publicity useful for recruitment.[36]
Tests
Israel carried out a four-year series of tests on nuclear explosives to measure the effects were hostile forces ever to use them against Israel, Haaretz reported in 2015. According to the report, high-level radiation was measured only at the center of the explosions, while the level of dispersal of radiation by particles carried by the wind (fallout) was low. The bombs reportedly did not pose a significant danger beyond their psychological effect.[37]
Detection and prevention
Dirty bombs may be prevented by detecting illicit radioactive materials in shipping with tools such as a
One proposed method for detecting shielded Dirty Bombs is Nanosecond Neutron Analysis (NNA).[39] Designed originally for the detection of explosives and hazardous chemicals, NNA is also applicable to fissile materials. NNA determines what chemicals are present in an investigated device by analyzing emitted γ-emission neutrons and α-particles created from a reaction in the neutron generator. The system records the temporal and spatial displacement of the neutrons and α-particles within separate 3D regions.[39] A prototype dirty-bomb detection device created with NNA is demonstrated to be able to detect uranium from behind a 5 cm-thick lead wall.[39] Other radioactive material detectors include Radiation Assessment and Identification (RAID) and Sensor for Measurement and Analysis of Radiation Transients, both developed by Sandia National Laboratories.[40] Sodium iodide scintillator based aerial radiation detection systems are capable to detect International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defined dangerous quantities of radioactive material [41] and have been deployed by the New York City Police Department (NYPD) Counterterrorism Bureau.[42]
The IAEA recommends certain devices be used in tandem at country borders to prevent transfer of radioactive materials, and thus the building of dirty bombs.[43] They define the four main goals of radiation detection instruments as detection, verification, assessment and localization, and identification as a means to escalate a potential radiological situation. The IAEA also defines the following types of instruments:[43]
- Pocket-Type Instruments: these instruments provide a low-power, mobile option to detection that allows for security officers to passively scan an area for radioactive materials. These devices should be easily worn, should have an alarm threshold of three times normal radiation levels, and should have a long battery life - over 800 hours.
- Handheld Instruments: these instruments may be used to detect all types of radiation (including neutron) and may be used to search specific targets flexibly. These instruments should aim for ease of use and speed, ideally weighing less than 2 kg and being able to make measurements in less than a second.
- Fixed, installed instruments: these instruments provide a continuous, automatic detection system that can monitor pedestrians and vehicles that pass through. To work effectively pedestrians and vehicles should be led close to the detectors, as performance is directly related to range.
Legislative and regulatory actions can also be used to prevent access to materials needed to create a dirty bomb. Examples include the 2006 U.S. Dirty Bomb Bill, the Yucca Flats proposal, and the Nunn-Lungar act.[40] Similarly, close monitoring and restrictions of radioactive materials may provide security for materials in vulnerable private-sector applications, most notably in the medical sector where such materials are used for treatments.[35] Suggestions for increased security include isolation of materials in remote locations and strict limitation of access.
One way to mitigate a major effect of a radiological weapons may also be to educate the public on the nature of radioactive materials. As one of the major concerns of a dirty bomb is the public panic proper education may prove a viable counter-measure.[36] Education on radiation is considered by some to be "the most neglected issue related to radiological terrorism".[35]
Personal safety
The dangers of a dirty bomb come from the initial blast and the radioactive materials[44][45] To mitigate the risk of radiation exposure, FEMA suggests the following guidelines:
- Covering the mouth/nose with cloth to reduce risk of breathing in radioactive materials.
- Avoiding touching materials touched by the explosion.
- Quickly relocating inside to shield from radiation.
- Remove and pack up clothes. Keep clothes until instructed by authorities how to dispose of them.
- Keep radioactive dust outside.
- Remove all dust possible by showering with soap and water.
- Avoid taking potassium iodide, as it only prevents effects from radioactive iodine and may instead cause a dangerous reaction.
Treatment
As of 2023[update], research is under way to find radioactive decontanimation drugs to remove radioactive elements from the body. One drug candidate under investigation is HOPO 14-1.[46]
In popular culture
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2019) |
- In the 2004 TV movie Dirty War London was struck by a dirty bomb.
- In the 2004
- The crime drama television series Numb3rshas an episode that revolves around a dirty bomb (season 1, episode 10).
- In a two-part 2011 episode of Castle, former U.S. soldiers plot to detonate a dirty bomb in New York City and frame a Syrian immigrant for the crime.
- In the 2012 series finale of Flashpoint, an officer is poisoned by caesium from a dirty bomb and is administered Prussian blue to assist in recovery.
- In the 2013 Indian movie Vishwaroopam, the plot revolves around a dirty bomb developed by scraping caesium from oncological equipment to trigger a blast in New York City.
- In the 2014 movie Jokerhas a dirty bomb which he plans on detonating in Gotham.
- In the 2016 Republican presidential debates, Ben Carson referenced dirty bombs twice when speaking on US foreign policy.
- In the 2015 game by Splash Damage, Dirty Bomb, the game is played in a dirty bomb fallout area in London.
- In the Madam Secretary episode "Right of the Boom", a dirty bomb is detonated at a women's education conference in Washington, D.C.
- The American political drama web television series House of Cardshas an episode that revolves around a dirty bomb (season 5, episode 7).
- In the 2006 movie Right at Your Door, multiple dirty bombs are detonated in Los Angeles.
- In the 2017 movie Blade Runner 2049 reference dirty bomb zone was detonated in Las Vegas.
- In the 2018 video game Detroit: Become Human, numerous endings depict Markus, one of three playable android characters in the game, setting off a cobalt-derived dirty bomb in southern Detroit to force the retreat of authorities.[48]
- In the 2019 BBC drama Years and Years, Leeds and Bristol are struck by a dirty bomb in a terrorist attack.
- In the 2020 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War, there is a game mode in the Multiplayer mode where squads compete to collect uranium and use it to plant dirty bombs on enemy positions.[49]
See also
- Broken Arrow (nuclear)
- Crimes involving radioactive substances
- Improvised nuclear device
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
- Nuclear terrorism
- Nuclear warfare
- Nuclear weapon design
- Operation Groundhog
- Radiation poisoning
- Radiological warfare
- Salted bomb
References
Notes
- ^ "Dirty Bomb". Archived from the original on 2011-10-20. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
- ^ "Yahoo Screen - Watch videos online". Yahoo Screen. 23 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "BBC NEWS - Science/Nature - Chernobyl's 'nuclear nightmares'". 13 July 2006. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
- ^ "Backgrounder on Dirty Bombs". NRC.gov. 23 February 2022.
- ^ Reshetin (2005); Dingle (2005)
- PMID 12395729.
- ^ King (2004); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004); Sohier and Hardeman (2006)
- ^ a b c d e Zimmerman and Loeb (2004)
- ^ Mullen et al. (2002); Reshetin (2005)
- ^ Zimmerman (2006)
- ^ Johnson (2003)
- ^ "The Lifeless Silence of Pripyat", Time, June 23, 1986.
- ^ Vantine and Crites (2002); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004); Weiss (2005)
- ^ Petroff (2007)
- ^ "terrorism". dtic.mil. Archived from the original on 10 November 2011.
- ^ Ferguson et al. (2003); Frost (2005)
- ^ a b Frost (2005)
- ^ a b Ferguson et al. (2003)
- ^ Ferguson et al. (2003); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004)
- ^ Burgess (2003); Van Tuyle and Mullen (2003); Sohier and Hardeman (2006)
- ^ a b c Krock, Lexi; Deusser, Rebecca (February 2003). "Chronology of events". NOVA.
- ^ Nave, R. "Chernobyl". HyperPhysics. gsu.edu.
- ^ King (2004); Hoffman (2006)
- ^ Belyaninov (1994); Frost (2005)
- ^ Sohier and Hardeman (2006)
- ^ King (2004)
- ^ Edwards (2004)
- ^ Ferguson et al. (2003); Hosenball et al. (2002)
- ^ Burgess (2003); King (2004)
- ^ "Man admits UK-US terror bomb plot". BBC News. 2006-10-12. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- ^ Report: 'Dirty bomb' parts found in slain man's home Archived 2009-02-14 at the Wayback Machine, Bangor Daily News, 10 February 2009
- ^ Officials verify dirty bomb probe results Archived 2009-02-13 at the Wayback Machine, Bangor Daily News, 11 February 2009
- ^ Burnett, Stephanie (July 10, 2014). "Iraqi 'Terrorist Groups' Have Seized Nuclear Materials". Time.
- ^ "ISIS seizes uranium from lab; experts downplay 'dirty bomb' threat". Fox News. 24 March 2015.
- ^ )
- ^ a b c d Medalia, Jonathan. Terrorist "Dirty Bombs": A Brief Primer. Congressional Research Service. pp. 3–6.
- ^ Levinson, Chaim (8 June 2015). "Haaretz Exclusive: Israel Tested 'Dirty-bomb Cleanup' in the Desert". Haaretz. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
- ^ Richards, Anne (2013). United States Customs and Border Protection's Radiation Portal Monitors at Seaports. Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General.
- ^ )
- ^ a b Brown, Chad (February 2006). "Transcendental Terrorism And Dirty Bombs: Radiological Weapons Threat Revisited". Occasional Paper: Center for Strategy and Technology. 54: 24–27.
- arXiv:2111.07756 [physics.ins-det].
- ^ Dienst, Jonathan; Paredes, David; Strich, Emily (October 6, 2017). "I-Team: Inside the NYPD's New Radiation-Detecting Plane". NBC New York. NBC 4 New York. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
- ^ OCLC 856404390.
- ^ "Fact Sheet: Dirty Bomb" (PDF). www.fema.gov. June 2007. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
- ^ Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Dirty Bombs, by CDC
- ^ "First-in-human trial of oral drug to remove radioactive contamination begins". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "Hitman 3: Contracts", HD walkthrough (Professional), Mission 3 - The Bjarkhov Bomb". YouTube. 2012-03-23. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11. Retrieved 2019-08-06.
- ^ Hornshaw, Phil (1 June 2018). "'Detroit: Become Human' endings guide". Digital Trends. Archived from the original on 14 June 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
Under the right circumstances, North will tell Markus about a dirty bomb in Detroit during the Crossroads chapter. Taking the switch from her gives you the option to use it to force the authorities to spare the androids during the protest in Battle for Detroit.
- ^ "Call of Duty®: Black Ops Cold War: Multiplayer Modes". www.callofduty.com. Retrieved 2020-11-23.
Works cited
- Belyaninov, K. (1994), "Nuclear nonsense, black-market bombs, and fissile flim-flam", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 44–50, .
- Burgess, M. (2003) "Pascal's New Wager: The Dirty Bomb Threat Heightens", Center for Defense Information.
- Dingle, J. (2005), "DIRTY BOMBS: real threat?", Security, vol. 42, no. 4, p. 48.
- Edwards, R. (2004), "Only a matter of time?", New Scientist, vol. 182, no. 2450, pp. 8–9.
- Adam Curtis's The Power of Nightmares, Part III – Video/Transcript at informationclearinghouse.info.
- Ferguson, C.D., Kazi, T. and Perera J. (2003) Commercial Radioactive Sources: Surveying the Security Risks, Monterey Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Occasional Paper #11, .
- Frost, R. M. (2005), Nuclear Terrorism After 9/11, Routledge for The International Institute for Strategic Studies, ISBN 0-415-39992-0.
- Hoffman, B. (2006), Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, N.Y., ISBN 0-231-12698-0.
- Hosenball, M., Hirsch, M. and Moreau, R. (2002) "War on Terror: Nabbing a "Dirty Bomb" Suspect", Newsweek (Int. ed.), ID: X7835733: 28–33.
- Johnson, R.H. Jr. (2003), "Facing the Terror of Nuclear Terrorism", Occupational Health & Safety, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 44–50, PMID 12754858.
- King, G. (2004), Dirty Bomb: Weapon of Mass Disruption, Chamberlain Bros., Penguin Group, ISBN 1-59609-000-6.
- Liolios, T.E. (2008) The effects of using Cesium-137 teletherapy sources as a radiological weapon (dirty bomb), Hellenic Arms Control Center, Occasional Paper May 2008, [1].
- Mullen, E., Van Tuyle, G. and York, R. (2002) "Potential radiological dispersal device threats and related technology", Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, 87: 309.
- Petroff, D.M. (2003), "Responding to 'dirty bombs'", Occupational Health and Safety, vol. 72, no. 9, pp. 82–87, PMID 14528823.
- Reshetin, V.P. (2005), "Estimation of radioactivity levels associated with a 90Sr dirty bomb event", Atmospheric Environment, vol. 39, no. 25, pp. 4471–4477, .
- Ring, J.P. (2004), "Radiation Risks and Dirty Bombs", The Radiation Safety Journal, Health Physics, vol. 86, no. suppl. 1, pp. S42–S47, S2CID 41910831.
- Sohier, A. and Hardeman, F. (2006) "Radiological Dispersion Devices: are we prepared?", Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 85: 171–181.
- Van Tuylen, G.J. and Mullen, E. (2003) "Large radiological source applications: RDD implications and proposed alternative technologies", Global 2003: Atoms for Prosperity: Updating Eisenhouwer's Global Vision for Nuclear Energy, LA-UR-03-6281: 622–631, ISBN 0-89448-677-2.
- Vantine, H.C. and Crites, T.R. (2002) "Relevance of nuclear weapons cleanup experience to dirty bomb response", Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, 87: 322–323.
- Weiss, P. (2005), "Ghost town busters", JSTOR 4016859
- Zimmerman, P.D. and Loeb, C. (2004) "Dirty Bombs: The Threat Revisited", Defense Horizons, 38: 1-11.
- Zimmerman, P.D. (2006), "The Smoky Bomb Threat", The New York Times, vol. 156, no. 53798, p. 33.
External links
- U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Factsheet on Dirty Bombs
- Al Qaeda's Nuclear Options—Crusade Media News
- Council on Foreign Relations, Terrorism Q&A: Dirty Bombs
- U.S. Dep't of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration, Radiological Dispersal Devices / Dirty Bombs
- Dirty bomb threat analysis—Federation of American Scientists
- Health Physics Society, Factsheet
- Health Physics Society, January 2004 study, Dirty Bombs Could Cause Devastating Economic Damage
- CNN, Explosion, not radiation, "dirty bomb's" worst fallout
- Dirty Bomb—NOVA, PBS
- Lost and stolen nuclear materials in the US—Three Mile Island Alert describes the problem
- The making of the terror myth
- Annotated bibliography for dirty bombs from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- "Dirty Bombs": Background in Brief Congressional Research Service
- "Dirty Bombs": Technical Background, Attack Prevention and Response, Issues for Congress Congressional Research Service