Dissolved organic carbon

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Net ocean DOC production and export fluxes
Net DOC production (NDP) in the upper 74 metres (a) and net DOC export (NDX) below 74 metres (b). At steady state, the global summation of NDX is equal to that of NDP, and is 2.31 ± 0.60 PgC yr.[1]
Part of a series on the
Carbon cycle
By regions
Carbon dioxide
Forms of carbon
Metabolic pathways
Carbon respiration
Carbon pumps
Carbon sequestration
Methane
Biogeochemical
Other

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the fraction of

particulate organic carbon (POC).[3]

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a closely related term often used interchangeably with DOC. While DOC refers specifically to the mass of carbon in the dissolved organic material, DOM refers to the total mass of the dissolved organic matter. So DOM also includes the mass of other elements present in the organic material, such as nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. DOC is a component of DOM and there is typically about twice as much DOM as DOC.[4] Many statements that can be made about DOC apply equally to DOM, and vice versa.

DOC is abundant in

organic carbon compounds are the result of decomposition processes from dead organic matter including plants and animals. DOC can originate from within or outside any given body of water. DOC originating from within the body of water is known as autochthonous DOC and typically comes from aquatic plants or algae, while DOC originating outside the body of water is known as allochthonous DOC and typically comes from soils or terrestrial plants.[6]
When water originates from land areas with a high proportion of organic soils, these components can drain into rivers and lakes as DOC.

The marine DOC pool is important for the functioning of marine ecosystems because they are at the interface between the chemical and the biological worlds. DOC fuels

carbon cycling.[7]

Overview

Size and classification of marine particles[8]
Adapted from Simon et al., 2002.[9]
Colour differences in DOC collected from coastal waters
Filtered (0.2 μm) coastal marine waters collected at various locations around the United Kingdom. The differences in colour is due to the range of soil-derived carbon input to the coastal water, with dark brown (left) indicating a high soil-derived carbon contribution and near-clear water (right) indicating a low soil-derived carbon contribution.[7]

DOC is a basic nutrient, supporting growth of microorganisms and plays an important role in the global carbon cycle through the microbial loop.[10] In some organisms (stages) that do not feed in the traditional sense, dissolved matter may be the only external food source.[11] Moreover, DOC is an indicator of organic loadings in streams, as well as supporting terrestrial processing (e.g., within soil, forests, and wetlands) of organic matter. Dissolved organic carbon has a high proportion of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) in first order streams compared to higher order streams. In the absence of extensive wetlands, bogs, or swamps, baseflow concentrations of DOC in undisturbed watersheds generally range from approximately 1 to 20 mg/L carbon.[12] Carbon concentrations considerably vary across ecosystems. For example, the Everglades may be near the top of the range and the middle of oceans may be near the bottom. Occasionally, high concentrations of organic carbon indicate anthropogenic influences, but most DOC originates naturally.[13]

The BDOC fraction consists of organic

heterotrophic bacteria can use as a source of energy and carbon.[14] Some subset of DOC constitutes the precursors of disinfection byproducts for drinking water.[15] BDOC can contribute to undesirable biological regrowth within water distribution systems.[16]

The dissolved fraction of total organic carbon (TOC) is an operational classification. Many researchers use the term "dissolved" for compounds that pass through a 0.45 μm filter, but 0.22 μm filters have also been used to remove higher colloidal concentrations.[2]

A practical definition of dissolved typically used in

marine chemistry is all substances that pass through a GF/F filter, which has a nominal pore size of approximately 0.7 μm (Whatman glass microfiber filter, 0.6–0.8 μm particle retention[17]). The recommended procedure is the HTCO technique, which calls for filtration through pre-combusted glass fiber filters, typically the GF/F classification.[18]

Labile and recalcitrant

Dissolved organic matter can be classified as labile or as recalcitrant, depending on its reactivity. Recalcitrant DOC is also called refractory DOC, and these terms seem to be used interchangeably in the context of DOC. Depending on the origin and composition of DOC, its behavior and cycling are different; the labile fraction of DOC decomposes rapidly through microbially or photochemically mediated processes, whereas refractory DOC is resistant to degradation and can persist in the ocean for millennia. In the coastal ocean, organic matter from terrestrial plant litter or soils appears to be more refractory[19] and thus often behaves conservatively. In addition, refractory DOC is produced in the ocean by the bacterial transformation of labile DOC, which reshapes its composition.[20][21][22]

Due to the continuous production and degradation in natural systems, the DOC pool contains a spectrum of reactive compounds each with their own reactivity,[23] that have been divided into fractions from labile to recalcitrant, depending on the turnover times,[24] as shown in the following table...

DOC pool spectrum from labile to recalcitrant [23][24]
DOC fraction acronym turnover time amount
labile DOCL hours to days < 200 Tg C
semi-labile DOCSL weeks to months ~600 Tg C
semi-recalcitrant DOCSR decades ~1400 Tg C
recalcitrant DOCR thousands of years ~63000 Tg C
highly resistant tens of thousands of years

This wide range in turnover or degradation times has been linked with the chemical composition, structure and molecular size,[25][26] but degradation also depends on the environmental conditions (e.g., nutrients), prokaryote diversity, redox state, iron availability, mineral-particle associations, temperature, sun-light exposure, biological production of recalcitrant compounds, and the effect of priming or dilution of individual molecules.[25][27][28][29][30][31] For example, lignin can be degraded in aerobic soils but is relatively recalcitrant in anoxic marine sediments.[32] This example shows bioavailability varies as a function of the ecosystem's properties. Accordingly, even normally ancient and recalcitrant compounds, such as petroleum, carboxyl-rich alicyclic molecules, can be degraded in the appropriate environmental setting.[33][34]

Terrestrial ecosystems

Soil

Soil DOC sources and sinks [35]
Sources and sinks of dissolved organic carbon in the soil system
Groundwater DOC sources
dissolved organic matter
Freshwater DOC sources and sinks [37]
DOC and POC — DIC and PIC
Inland waters primarily receive carbon from terrestrial ecosystems.[38] This carbon (1.9 Pg C y−1) is transported to the oceans (0.9 Pg C y−1), buried in the sediments (0.2 Pg C y−1) or emitted as CO2 (0.8 Pg C y−1).[39] More recent estimations are different: In 2013, Raymond et al. claimed CO2 emission from inland waters can be as high as 2.1 Pg C y−1.[40]
                   P = photosynthesis                    R = respiration

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is one of the most active and mobile carbon pools and has an important role in global carbon cycling.

cations), and immobilization of heavy metals and xenobiotics.[42] Soil DOM can be derived from different sources (inputs), such as atmospheric carbon dissolved in rainfall, litter and crop residues, manure, root exudates, and decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM). In the soil, DOM availability depends on its interactions with mineral components (e.g., clays, Fe and Al oxides) modulated by adsorption and desorption processes.[43] It also depends on SOM fractions (e.g., stabilized organic molecules and microbial biomass) by mineralization and immobilization processes. In addition, the intensity of these interactions changes according to soil inherent properties,[44] land use, and crop management.[43][35]

During the decomposition of organic material, most carbon is lost as CO2 to the atmosphere by microbial oxidation. Soil type and landscape slope, leaching, and runoff are also important processes associated to DOM losses in the soil.[45] In well-drained soils, leached DOC can reach the water table and release nutrients and pollutants that can contaminate groundwater,[45][46] whereas runoff transports DOM and xenobiotics to other areas, rivers, and lakes.[35]

Groundwater

Precipitation and surface water leaches dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from vegetation and

soil microbes, and some of these metabolites enter the DOC reservoir in groundwater.[36]

Freshwater ecosystems

Aquatic carbon occurs in different forms. Firstly, a division is made between organic and inorganic carbon.

particulate organic carbon; particles > 0.45 μm) and DOC (dissolved organic carbon; particles < 0.45 μm). DOC usually makes up 90% of the total amount of aquatic organic carbon. Its concentration ranges from 0.1 to >300 mg L−1.[47]

Likewise, inorganic carbon also consists of a particulate (PIC) and a dissolved phase (DIC). PIC mainly consists of carbonates (e.g., CaCO3), DIC consists of carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3−), CO2 and a negligibly small fraction of carbonic acid (H2CO3). The inorganic carbon compounds exist in equilibrium that depends on the pH of the water.[48] DIC concentrations in freshwater range from about zero in acidic waters to 60 mg C L−1 in areas with carbonate-rich sediments.[49]

POC can be degraded to form DOC; DOC can become POC by

macrophytes, produced by respiration (R), and exchanged with the atmosphere. Organic carbon is produced by organisms and is released during and after their life; e.g., in rivers, 1–20% of the total amount of DOC is produced by macrophytes.[38] Carbon can enter the system from the catchment and is transported to the oceans by rivers and streams. There is also exchange with carbon in the sediments, e.g., burial of organic carbon, which is important for carbon sequestration in aquatic habitats.[50]

Aquatic systems are very important in global carbon sequestration; e.g., when different European ecosystems are compared, inland aquatic systems form the second largest carbon sink (19–41 Tg C y−1); only forests take up more carbon (125–223 Tg C y−1).[51][37]

Marine ecosystems

Ocean DOC sources and sinks
UV-radiation – though sometimes photodegradation "transforms" DOC rather than removing it, ending up with higher molecular weight complex molecules), microbial (mainly by prokaryotes), aggregation (primarily when river and seawater mixes) and thermal degradation (in e.g., hydrothermal systems).[7]

Sources

In marine systems DOC originates from either

volatile organic carbon and pollens), and also thousands of synthetic human-made organic chemicals that can be measured in the ocean at trace concentrations.[57][56][7]

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) represents one of the Earth's major carbon pools. It contains a similar amount of carbon as the atmosphere and exceeds the amount of carbon bound in

hydrolytic enzymes,[59] as well as via mortality (e.g. viral shunt). Prokaryotes are also the main decomposers of DOC, although for some of the most recalcitrant forms of DOC very slow abiotic degradation in hydrothermal systems [59] or possibly sorption to sinking particles [24] may be the main removal mechanism. Mechanistic knowledge about DOC-microbe-interactions is crucial to understand the cycling and distribution of this active carbon reservoir.[61]

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton produces DOC by extracellular release commonly accounting between 5 and 30% of their total primary production,[62] although this varies from species to species.[63] Nonetheless, this release of extracellular DOC is enhanced under high light and low nutrient levels, and thus should increase relatively from eutrophic to oligotrophic areas, probably as a mechanism for dissipating cellular energy.[64] Phytoplankton can also produce DOC by autolysis during physiological stress situations e.g., nutrient limitation.[65] Other studies have demonstrated DOC production in association with meso- and macro-zooplankton feeding on phytoplankton and bacteria.[66][7]

Zooplankton

Zooplankton-mediated release of DOC occurs through

sloppy feeding, excretion and defecation which can be important energy sources for microbes.[67][66] Such DOC production is largest during periods with high food concentration and dominance of large zooplankton species.[68][7]

Bacteria and viruses

Bacteria are often viewed as the main consumers of DOC, but they can also produce DOC during

lytic) state.[73] The lytic cycle causes disruption of the cell(s) and release of DOC.[74][7]

DOC net production, transport and export in the ocean
Regions of significant net DOC production (broad arrows) include coastal and equatorial upwelling regions that support much of the global new production. DOC is transported into and around the subtropical gyres with the wind-driven surface circulation. Export takes place if exportable DOC (elevated concentrations indicated by dark blue fields) is present during overturning of the water column. precursor for deep and intermediate water mass formation. DOC is also exported with subduction in the gyres. In regions where DOCenriched subtropical water is prevented by polar frontal systems from serving as a precursor for overturning circulation (such as at the sites of Antarctic Bottom Water formation in the Southern Ocean) DOC export is a weak component of the biological pump. Waters south of the Antarctic Polar Front lack significant exportable DOC (depicted by light blue field) during winter.[75]
Simplified microbial food web in the sunlit ocean
Left side: classic description of the carbon flow from photosynthetic algae to grazers and higher trophic levels in the food chain.
Right side: microbial loop, with bacteria using dissolved organic carbon to gain biomass, which then re-enters the classic carbon flow through protists.[76][77]
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) fluxes in the surface, mesopelagic, and interior ocean
In panel (A) oceanic DOC stocks are shown in black circles with red font and units are Pg-C. DOC fluxes are shown in black and white font and units are either Tg-C yr−1 or Pg-C yr−1. Letters in arrows and associated flux values correspond to descriptions displayed in (B), which lists sources and sinks of oceanic DOC.[78]

Macrophytes

Marine

macroalgae and seagrass) are highly productive and extend over large areas in coastal waters but their production of DOC has not received much attention. Macrophytes release DOC during growth with a conservative estimate (excluding release from decaying tissues) suggesting that macroalgae release between 1-39% of their gross primary production,[79][80] while seagrasses release less than 5% as DOC of their gross primary production.[81] The released DOC has been shown to be rich in carbohydrates, with rates depending on temperature and light availability.[82] Globally the macrophyte communities have been suggested to produce ~160 Tg C yr−1 of DOC, which is approximately half the annual global river DOC input (250 Tg C yr−1).[82][7]

Marine sediments

coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM) concentrations, shown here interfacing with ocean shelf water.[83]

ocean basins,[88][89] but consistent global estimates of the overall input are currently lacking. Globally, groundwaters account for an unknown part of the freshwater DOC flux to the oceans.[90] The DOC in groundwater is a mixture of terrestrial, infiltrated marine, and in situ microbially produced material.[91] This flux of DOC to coastal waters could be important, as concentrations in groundwater are generally higher than in coastal seawater,[92] but reliable global estimates are also currently lacking.[7]

Sinks

The main processes that remove DOC from the ocean water column are: (1) Thermal degradation in e.g.,

heterotrophic marine prokaryotes.[98] It has been suggested that the combined effects of photochemical and microbial degradation represent the major sinks of DOC.[99][7]

Thermal degradation

  • Removal of refractory DOC in the ocean Phytoplankton production and food web dynamics in surface waters release a diverse mixture of dissolved molecules with varying reactivities. Bacteria and archaea utilize labile and semi-labile forms of DOC in surface and mesopelagic waters of the upper ocean, leaving behind a vast reservoir of refractory DOC (RDOC) that persists in the ocean for millennia. The ocean is a patchy environment that harbors a great diversity of microbes and physicochemical processes with the potential to remove refractory DOC when these molecules encounter environmental conditions and microbes that can degrade them. Physical mixing transports refractory DOC throughout the ocean realm and thereby increases the likelihood of its removal. Deep ocean waters can be entrained into hydrothermal circulation and associated DOC can be removed by thermal degradation. Sinking particles from the upper ocean release labile DOC (LDOC) that triggers hot spots of microbial activity and primes the removal of refractory molecules. Mixing of subsurface waters into sunlit waters exposes refractory DOC to warmer temperatures and photochemical processes that can mineralize and transform refractory molecules into simple compounds (e.g., pyruvate, formaldehyde) for rapid microbial utilization. Thus, it appears the lifetime of refractory molecules in the ocean is regulated by the rate of global overturning circulation (GOC). This relationship indicates a slowing of GOC could lead to an increase in the reservoir size of refractory DOC, assuming a constant production rate of refractory DOC (inset panel).[100]
    Removal of refractory DOC in the ocean
    Phytoplankton production and food web dynamics in surface waters release a diverse mixture of dissolved molecules with varying reactivities. Bacteria and archaea utilize labile and semi-labile forms of DOC in surface and mesopelagic waters of the upper ocean, leaving behind a vast reservoir of refractory DOC (RDOC) that persists in the ocean for millennia. The ocean is a patchy environment that harbors a great diversity of microbes and physicochemical processes with the potential to remove refractory DOC when these molecules encounter environmental conditions and microbes that can degrade them. Physical mixing transports refractory DOC throughout the ocean realm and thereby increases the likelihood of its removal. Deep ocean waters can be entrained into hydrothermal circulation and associated DOC can be removed by thermal degradation. Sinking particles from the upper ocean release labile DOC (LDOC) that triggers hot spots of microbial activity and primes the removal of refractory molecules. Mixing of subsurface waters into sunlit waters exposes refractory DOC to warmer temperatures and photochemical processes that can mineralize and transform refractory molecules into simple compounds (e.g., pyruvate, formaldehyde) for rapid microbial utilization. Thus, it appears the lifetime of refractory molecules in the ocean is regulated by the rate of global overturning circulation (GOC). This relationship indicates a slowing of GOC could lead to an increase in the reservoir size of refractory DOC, assuming a constant production rate of refractory DOC (inset panel).[100]

humic compounds and reducing molecular size, transforming DOC to particulate organic flocs which can sediment and/or be consumed by grazers and filter feeders, but it also stimulates the bacterial degradation of the flocculated DOC.[102] The impacts of flocculation on the removal of DOC from coastal waters are highly variable with some studies suggesting it can remove up to 30% of the DOC pool,[103][104] while others find much lower values (3–6%;[105]). Such differences could be explained by seasonal and system differences in the DOC chemical composition, pH, metallic cation concentration, microbial reactivity, and ionic strength.[101][106][7]

CDOM

The colored fraction of DOC (CDOM) absorbs light in the blue and UV-light range and therefore influences plankton productivity both negatively by absorbing light, that otherwise would be available for photosynthesis, and positively by protecting plankton organisms from harmful UV-light.[107][108] However, as the impact of UV damage and ability to repair is extremely variable, there is no consensus on how UV-light changes might impact overall plankton communities.[109][110] The CDOM absorption of light initiates a complex range of photochemical processes, which can impact nutrient, trace metal and DOC chemical composition, and promote DOC degradation.[97]

Photodegradation

Photodegradation involves the transformation of CDOM into smaller and less colored molecules (e.g., organic acids), or into inorganic carbon (CO, CO2), and nutrient salts (NH4−, HPO2−
4).[111][96][112] Therefore, it generally means that photodegradation transforms recalcitrant into labile DOC molecules that can be rapidly used by prokaryotes for biomass production and respiration. However, it can also increase CDOM through the transformation of compounds such as triglycerides, into more complex aromatic compounds,[113][114] which are less degradable by microbes. Moreover, UV radiation can produce e.g., reactive oxygen species, which are harmful to microbes.[115] The impact of photochemical processes on the DOC pool depends also on the chemical composition,[116] with some studies suggesting that recently produced autochthonous DOC becomes less bioavailable while allochthonous DOC becomes more bioavailable to prokaryotes after sunlight exposure, albeit others have found the contrary.[117][118][119] Photochemical reactions are particularly important in coastal waters which receive high loads of terrestrial derived CDOM, with an estimated ~20–30% of terrestrial DOC being rapidly photodegraded and consumed.[120] Global estimates also suggests that in marine systems photodegradation of DOC produces ~180 Tg C yr−1 of inorganic carbon, with an additional 100 Tg C yr−1 of DOC made more available to microbial degradation.[96][121] Another attempt at global ocean estimates also suggest that photodegradation (210 Tg C yr−1) is approximately the same as the annual global input of riverine DOC (250 Tg C yr−1;[122]), while others suggest that direct photodegradation exceeds the riverine DOC inputs.[123][124][7]

Recalcitrant DOC

Change in the composition of DOC with depth

DOC is conceptually divided into labile DOC, which is rapidly taken up by heterotrophic microbes, and the recalcitrant DOC reservoir, which has accumulated in the ocean (following a definition by Hansell).[24] As a consequence of its recalcitrance, the accumulated DOC reaches average radiocarbon ages between 1,000 and 4,000 years in surface waters, and between 3,000 and 6,000 years in the deep ocean,[125] indicating that it persists through several deep ocean mixing cycles between 300 and 1,400 years each.[126] Behind these average radiocarbon ages, a large spectrum of ages is hidden. Follett et al. showed DOC comprises a fraction of modern radiocarbon age, as well as DOC reaching radiocarbon ages of up to 12,000 years.[127][61]

Distribution

More precise measurement techniques developed in the late 1990s have allowed for a good understanding of how dissolved organic carbon is distributed in marine environments both vertically and across the surface.

marine bacteria.[129] Recalcitrant dissolved organic carbon is evenly spread throughout the water column and consists of high molecular weight and structurally complex compounds that are difficult for marine organisms to use such as the lignin, pollen, or humic acids. As a result, the observed vertical distribution consists of high concentrations of labile DOC in the upper water column and low concentrations at depth.[130]

  • Environmental processes controlling the apparent recalcitrance of oceanic DOC The dots represent DOC molecules and arrows represent physicochemical and biological processes that impact DOC concentration and molecular composition. In the surface ocean, DOC derived from primary production is rapidly remineralized or transformed through microbial degradation (black arrow), photochemical degradation (yellow arrow), or particle exchange (green arrow). Labile components are removed down the water column and DOC becomes diluted by processes, such as particle exchange (brown arrow), sediment dissolution (gray arrow), and microbial reworking (white arrow), which continue to alter, add, and/or remove molecules from the bulk DOC pool. Thus, the apparent recalcitrance of DOC in the ocean’s interior is an emergent property that is largely controlled by environmental context.[78]
    Environmental processes controlling the apparent recalcitrance of oceanic DOC
    The dots represent DOC molecules and arrows represent physicochemical and biological processes that impact DOC concentration and molecular composition. In the surface ocean, DOC derived from primary production is rapidly remineralized or transformed through microbial degradation (black arrow), photochemical degradation (yellow arrow), or particle exchange (green arrow). Labile components are removed down the water column and DOC becomes diluted by processes, such as particle exchange (brown arrow), sediment dissolution (gray arrow), and microbial reworking (white arrow), which continue to alter, add, and/or remove molecules from the bulk DOC pool. Thus, the apparent recalcitrance of DOC in the ocean’s interior is an emergent property that is largely controlled by environmental context.[78]

In addition to vertical distributions, horizontal distributions have been modeled and sampled as well.[131] In the surface ocean at a depth of 30 meters, the higher dissolved organic carbon concentrations are found in the South Pacific Gyre, the South Atlantic Gyre, and the Indian Ocean. At a depth of 3,000 meters, highest concentrations are in the North Atlantic Deep Water where dissolved organic carbon from the high concentration surface ocean is removed to depth. While in the northern Indian Ocean high DOC is observed due to high fresh water flux and sediments. Since the time scales of horizontal motion along the ocean bottom are in the thousands of years, the refractory dissolved organic carbon is slowly consumed on its way from the North Atlantic and reaches a minimum in the North Pacific.[131]

As emergent

Dissolved organic matter is a heterogeneous pool of thousands, likely millions, of organic compounds. These compounds differ not only in composition and concentration (from pM to μM), but also originate from various organisms (phytoplankton, zooplankton, and bacteria) and environments (terrestrial vegetation and soils, coastal fringe ecosystems) and may have been produced recently or thousands of years ago. Moreover, even organic compounds deriving from the same source and of the same age may have been subjected to different processing histories prior to accumulating within the same pool of DOM.[78]

Interior ocean DOM is a highly modified fraction that remains after years of exposure to sunlight, utilization by heterotrophs, flocculation and coagulation, and interaction with particles. Many of these processes within the DOM pool are compound- or class-specific. For example, condensed aromatic compounds are highly photosensitive,[132] whereas proteins, carbohydrates, and their monomers are readily taken up by bacteria.[133][134][135] Microbes and other consumers are selective in the type of DOM they utilize and typically prefer certain organic compounds over others. Consequently, DOM becomes less reactive as it is continually reworked. Said another way, the DOM pool becomes less labile and more refractory with degradation. As it is reworked, organic compounds are continually being added to the bulk DOM pool by physical mixing, exchange with particles, and/or production of organic molecules by the consumer community.[70][21][136][100] As such, the compositional changes that occur during degradation are more complex than the simple removal of more labile components and resultant accumulation of remaining, less labile compounds.[78]

Dissolved organic matter recalcitrance (i.e., its overall reactivity toward degradation and/or utilization) is therefore an emergent property. The perception of DOM recalcitrance changes during organic matter degradation and in conjunction with any other process that removes or adds organic compounds to the DOM pool under consideration.[78]

The surprising resistance of high concentrations of DOC to microbial degradation has been addressed by several hypotheses.[137] The prevalent notion is that the recalcitrant fraction of DOC has certain chemical properties, which prevent decomposition by microbes ("intrinsic stability hypothesis"). An alternative or additional explanation is given by the "dilution hypothesis", that all compounds are labile, but exist in concentrations individually too low to sustain microbial populations but collectively form a large pool.[138] The dilution hypothesis has found support in recent experimental and theoretical studies.[139][140][61]

DOM isolation and analysis

DOM is found in low concentrations in nature for direct analysis with NMR or MS. Moreover, DOM samples often contain high concentrations of inorganic salts that are incompatible with such techniques.[141] Therefore, it is necessary a concentration and isolation step of the sample.[141][142] The most used isolation techniques are ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and solid-phase extraction.[143] Among them solid-phase extraction is considered as the cheapest and easiest technique.[142]

See also

References

  1. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02227-3
    .
  2. ^ a b "Organic Carbon". Bio-geochemical Methods. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  3. doi:10.3390/w6102862
    .
  4. doi:10.1002/2016JG003493
    .
  5. doi:10.1016/0304-4203(92)90096-s
    .
  6. S2CID 15021562
    .
  7. ^
    doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00466. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  8. doi:10.5194/npg-24-293-2017. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License
    .
  9. doi:10.3354/ame028175
    .
  10. S2CID 4285758
    .
  11. S2CID 84541307
    .
  12. ISBN 9781119099994
    .
  13. ^ Elser, Stephen (2014). "Brown Water: The Ecological and Economic Implications of Increased Dissolved Organic Carbon in Lakes". Archived from the original on 25 September 2017.
  14. S2CID 24876521
    .
  15. ^ "Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)".
  16. ISBN 9789388172400
    .
  17. ^ "Whatman glass microfiber filters, Grade GF/F". Merck.
  18. ^ Knap, A. Michaels; A. Close; A. Ducklow; H. Dickson, A. (1994). Protocols for the Joint Global Ocean Flux studies (JGOFS) core measurements. JGOFS.
  19. ISBN 9780080500119
    .
  20. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.08.024
    .
  21. ^
    S2CID 14616875
    .
  22. doi:10.5194/bg-17-135-2020. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  23. ^ a b Vahatalo, A. V., Aarnos, H., and Mantyniemi, S. (2010). Biodegradability continuum and biodegradation kinetics of natural organic matter described by the beta distribution. Biogeochemistry 100, 227–240. doi: 10.1007/s10533-010-9419-4
  24. ^
    PMID 22881353
    .
  25. ^ a b Amon, R. M. W., and Benner, R. (1996). Bacterial utilization of different size classes of dissolved organic matter. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41, 41–51. doi: 10.4319/lo.1996.41.1.0041
  26. ^ Benner, R., and Amon, R. M. (2015). The size-reactivity continuum of major bioelements in the ocean. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 7, 185–205. doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135126
  27. ^ Thingstad, T. F., Havskum, H., Kaas, H., Nielsen, T. G., Riemann, B., Lefevre, D., et al. (1999). Bacteria-protist interactions and organic matter degradation under P-limited conditions: analysis of an enclosure experiment using a simple model. Limnol. Oceanogr. 44, 62–79. doi: 10.4319/lo.1999.44.1.0062
  28. ^ Del-Giorgio, P., and Davies, J. (2003). "Patterns of dissolved organic matter lability and consumption across aquatic ecosystems", in Aquatic Ecosystems: Interactivity of Dissolved Organic Matter, eds S. E. G. Findlay and R. L. Sinsabaugh (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 399–424. doi: 10.1016/B978-012256371-3/50018-4
  29. ^ Bianchi, T. S. (2011). The role of terrestrially derived organic carbon in the coastal ocean: a changing paradigm and the priming effect. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 19473–19481. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1017982108
  30. ^ Kattner, G., Simon, M., and Koch, B. P. (2011). "Molecular characterization of dissolved organic matter and constraints for prokaryotic utilization", in Microbial Carbon Pump in the Ocean, eds N. Jiao, F. Azam, and S. Sansers (Washington, DC: Science/AAAS).
  31. ^ Keil, R. G., and Mayer, L. M. (2014). "Mineral matrices and organic matter", in Treatise on Geochemistry, 2nd Edn, eds H. Holland and K. Turekian (Oxford: Elsevier), 337–359. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01024-X
  32. ^ Bianchi, T. S., Cui, X., Blair, N. E., Burdige, D. J., Eglinton, T. I., and Galy, V. (2018). Centers of organic carbon burial and oxidation at the land-ocean interface. Org. Geochem. 115, 138–155. doi: 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2017.09.008
  33. ^ Ward, N. D., Keil, R. G., Medeiros, P. M., Brito, D. C., Cunha, A. C., Dittmar, T., et al. (2013). Degradation of terrestrially derived macromolecules in the Amazon River. Nat. Geosci. 6, 530–533. doi: 10.1038/ngeo1817
  34. ^ Myers-Pigg, A. N., Louchouarn, P., Amon, R. M. W., Prokushkin, A., Pierce, K., and Rubtsov, A. (2015). Labile pyrogenic dissolved organic carbon in major Siberian Arctic rivers: implications for wildfire-stream metabolic linkages. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 377–385. doi: 10.1002/2014GL062762
  35. ^
    doi:10.1590/1678-992x-2018-0164. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  36. ^
    doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11394-4. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  37. ^
    doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.00629. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  38. ^ a b Thomas, J. D. (1997). The role of dissolved organic matter, particularly free amino acids and humic substances, in freshwater ecosystems. Freshw. Biol. 38, 1–36. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2427.1997.00206.x
  39. ^ Cole, J. J., Prairie, Y. T., Caraco, N. F., McDowell, W. H., Tranvik, L. J., Striegl, R. G., et al. (2007). Plumbing the global carbon cycle: integrating inland waters into the terrestrial carbon budget. Ecosystems 10, 172–185. doi: 10.1007/s10021-006-9013-8
  40. ^ Raymond, P. A., Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R., Sobek, S., McDonald, C., Hoover, M., et al. (2013). Global carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters. Nature 503, 355–359. doi: 10.1038/nature12760
  41. ^ Kalbitz, K.; Solinger, S.; Park, J.H.; Michalzik, B.; Matzner, E. 2000. Controls on the dynamics of dissolved organic matter in soils: a review. Soil Science 165: 277–304.
  42. ^ Zech, W.; Senesi, N.; Guggenberger, G.; Kaiser, K.; Lehmann, J.; Miano, T.M.; Miltner, A.; Schroth, G. 1997. Factors controlling humification and mineralization of soil organic matter in the tropics. Geoderma 79: 117–161.
  43. ^ a b Saidy, A.R.; Smernik, R.J.; Baldock, J.A.; Kaiser, K.; Sanderman, J. 2015. Microbial degradation of organic carbon sorbed to phyllosilicate clays with and without hydrous iron oxide coating. European Journal of Soil Science 66: 83–94.
  44. ^ Kaiser, K.; Guggenberger, G. 2007. Sorptive stabilization of organic matter by microporous goethite: sorption into small pores vs. surface complexation. European Journal of Soil Science 58: 45–59.
  45. ^ a b Veum, K.S.; Goyne, K.W.; Motavalli, P.P.; Udawatta, R.P. 2009. Runoff and dissolved organic carbon loss from a paired-watershed study of three adjacent agricultural Watersheds. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 130: 115–122.
  46. ^ Sparling, G.; Chibnall, E.; Pronger, J.; Rutledge, S.; Wall, A.; Campbell, D.; Schipper, L. 2016. Estimates of annual leaching losses of dissolved organic carbon from pastures on Allophanic soils grazed by dairy cattle, Waikato, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 59: 32–49.
  47. ^ Sobek, S., Tranvik, L. J., Prairie, Y. T., Kortelainen, P., and Cole, J. J. (2007). Patterns and regulation of dissolved organic carbon: an analysis of 7,500 widely distributed lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52, 1208–1219. doi: 10.4319/lo.2007.52.3.1208
  48. ^ Stumm, W., and Morgan, J. J. (1996). Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters. Environmental Science and Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  49. ^ Madsen, T. V., and Sand-Jensen, K. (1991). Photosynthetic carbon assimilation in aquatic macrophytes. Aquat. Bot. 41, 5–40. doi: 10.1016/0304-3770(91)90037-6
  50. ^ Regnier, P., Friedlingstein, P., Ciais, P., Mackenzie, F. T., Gruber, N., Janssens, I. A., et al. (2013). Anthropogenic perturbation of the carbon fluxes from land to ocean. Nat. Geosci. 6, 597–607. doi: 10.1038/ngeo1830
  51. ^ Luyssaert, S., Abril, G., Andres, R., Bastviken, D., Bellassen, V., Bergamaschi, P., et al. (2012). The European land and inland water CO2, CO, CH4 and N2O balance between 2001 and 2005. Biogeosciences 9, 3357–3380. doi: 10.5194/bg-9-3357-2012
  52. ^ a b Kawasaki, N., and Benner, R. (2006). Bacterial release of dissolved organic matter during cell growth and decline: molecular origin and composition. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51, 2170–2180. doi: 10.4319/lo.2006.51.5.2170
  53. ^ Lønborg, C., Álvarez-Salgado, X. A., Davidson, K., and Miller, A. E. J. (2009). Production of bioavailable and refractory dissolved organic matter by coastal heterotrophic microbial populations. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 82, 682–688. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.02.026
  54. ^ Wada, S., Aoki, M. N., Tsuchiya, Y., Sato, T., Shinagawa, H., and Hama, T. (2007). Quantitative and qualitative analyses of dissolved organic matter released from Ecklonia cava Kjellman, in Oura Bay, Shimoda, Izu Peninsula, Japan. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 349, 344–358. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2007.05.024
  55. ^ Willey, J. D., Kieber, R. J., Eyman, M. S. Jr., and Brooks Avery, G. (2000). Rainwater dissolved organic carbon concentrations and global flux. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 14, 139–148. doi: 10.1029/1999GB900036
  56. ^ a b Raymond, P. A., and Spencer, R. G. M. (2015). "Riverine DOM", in Biogeochemistry of Marine Dissolved Organic Matter, eds D. A. Hansell and C. A. Carlson (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 509–533. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405940-5.00011-X
  57. ^ Dachs, J., and Méjanelle, L. (2010). Organic pollutants in coastal waters, sediments, and biota: a relevant driver for ecosystems during the anthropocene? Estuarines Coasts 33, 1–14. doi: 10.1007/s12237-009-9255-8
  58. S2CID 129511530
    .
  59. ^
    ISBN 9780124059405
    .
  60. S2CID 55057882
    .
  61. ^
    PMID 31780725. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  62. ^ Karl, D. M., Hebel, D. V., Bjorkman, K., and Letelier, R. M. (1998). The role of dissolved organic matter release in the productivity of the oligotrophic north Pacific Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43, 1270–1286. doi: 10.4319/lo.1998.43.6.1270
  63. ^ Wetz, M. S., and Wheeler, P. A. (2007). Release of dissolved organic matter by coastal diatoms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52, 798–807. doi: 10.4319/lo.2007.52.2.0798
  64. ^ Thornton, D. C. O. (2014). Dissolved organic matter (DOM) release by phytoplankton in the contemporary and future ocean. Eur. J. Phycol. 49, 20–46. doi: 10.1080/09670262.2013.875596
  65. ^ Boekell, W. H. M. V., Hansen, F. C., Riegman, R., and Bak, R. P. M. (1992). Lysis-induced decline of a Phaeocystis spring bloom and coupling with the microbial foodweb. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 81, 269–276. doi: 10.3354/meps081269
  66. ^ a b Hygum, B. H., Petersen, J. W., and Søndergaard, M. (1997). Dissolved organic carbon released by zooplankton grazing activity- a high quality substrate pool for bacteria. J. Plankton Res. 19, 97–111. doi: 10.1093/plankt/19.1.97
  67. ^ Lampert, W. (1978). Release of dissolved organic carbon by grazing zooplankton. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23, 831–834. doi: 10.4319/lo.1978.23.4.0831
  68. ^ Jumars, P. A., Penry, D. L., Baross, J. A., and Perry, M. J. (1989). Closing the microbial loop: dissolved carbon pathway to heterotrophic bacteria from incomplete ingestion, digestion and absorption in animals. Deep Sea Res. 36, 483–495. doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(89)90001-0
  69. ^ Iturriaga, R., and Zsolnay, A. (1981). Transformation of some dissolved organic compounds by a natural heterotrophic population. Mar. Biol. 62, 125–129. doi: 10.1007/BF00388174
  70. ^
    S2CID 36359472
    .
  71. ^ McCarthy, M., Pratum, T., Hedges, J., and Benner, R. (1997). Chemical composition of dissolved organic nitrogen in the ocean. Nature 390, 150–154. doi: 10.1038/36535
  72. ^ Suttle, C. A. (2005). Viruses in the sea. Nature 437, 356–361. doi: 10.1038/nature04160
  73. ^ Weinbauer, M. A. G. (2004). Ecology of prokaryotic viruses. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28, 127–181. doi: 10.1016/j.femsre.2003.08.001
  74. ^ Lønborg, C., Middelboe, M., and Brussaard, C. P. D. (2013). Viral lysis of Micromonas pusilla: impacts on dissolved organic matter production and composition. Biogeochemistry 116, 231–240. doi: 10.1007/s10533-013-9853-1
  75. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2001.05. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  76. hdl:10261/153315. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  77. S2CID 4400950
    .
  78. ^
    doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00341. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  79. ^ Brilinsky, M. (1977). Release of dissolved organic matter by some marine macrophytes. Mar. Biol. 39, 213–220. doi: 10.1007/BF00390995
  80. ^ Pregnall, A. M. (1983). Release of dissolved organic carbon from the estuarine intertidal macroalga Enteromorpha prolifera. Mar. Biol. 73, 37–42. doi: 10.1007/BF00396283
  81. ^ Penhale, P. A., and Smith, W. O. (1977). Excretion of dissolved organic carbon by eelgrass (Zostera marina) and its epiphytes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 400–407. doi: 10.4319/lo.1977.22.3.0400
  82. ^ a b Barrón, C., and Duarte, C. M. (2015). Dissolved organic carbon pools and export from the coastal ocean. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 29, 1725–1738. doi: 10.1002/2014GB005056
  83. doi:10.5194/bg-15-6847-2018. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  84. ^ Hewson, I., O'neil, J. M., Fuhrman, J. A., and Dennison, W. C. (2001). Virus-like particle distribution and abundance in sediments and overlying waters along eutrophication gradients in two subtropical estuaries. Limnol. Oceanogr. 46, 1734–1746. doi: 10.4319/lo.2001.46.7.1734
  85. ^ Burdige, D. J., and Gardner, K. G. (1998). Molecular weight distribution of dissolved organic carbon in marine sediment pore waters. Mar. Chem. 62, 45–64. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4203(98)00035-8
  86. ^ Burdige, D. J., and Komada, T. (2014). "Sediment pore waters", in Biogeochemistry of Marine Dissolved Organic Matter, eds D. A. Hansen and C. A. Carlson (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press), 535–577. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405940-5.00012-1
  87. ^ Komada, T., and Reimers, C. E. (2001). Resuspension-induced partitioning of organic carbon between solid and solution phases from a river–ocean transition. Mar. Chem. 76, 155–174. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4203(01)00055-X
  88. ^ Dittmar, T., and Koch, B. P. (2006). Thermogenic organic matter dissolved in the abyssal ocean. Mar. Chem. 102, 208–217. doi: 10.1016/j.marchem.2006.04.003
  89. ^ Dittmar, T., and Paeng, J. (2009). A heat-induced molecular signature in marine dissolved organic matter. Nat. Geosci. 2, 175–179. doi: 10.1038/ngeo440
  90. ^ Burnett, W. C., Aggarwal, P. K., Aureli, A., Bokuniewicz, H., Cable, J. E., Charette, M. A., et al. (2006). Quantifying submarine groundwater discharge in the coastal zone via multiple methods. Sci. Total Environ. 367, 498–543. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.05.009
  91. ^ Longnecker, K., and Kujawinski, E. B. (2011). Composition of dissolved organic matter in groundwater. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 2752–2761. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2011.02.020
  92. ^ Webb, J. R., Santos, I. R., Maher, D. T., Tait, D. R., Cyronak, T., Sadat-Noori, M., et al. (2019). Groundwater as a source of dissolved organic matter to coastal waters: insights from radon and CDOM observations in 12 shallow coastal systems. Limnol. Oceanogr. 64, 182–196. doi: 10.1002/lno.11028
  93. ^ a b Lang, S. Q., Butterfield, D. A., Lilley, M. D., Paul Johnson, H., and Hedges, J. I. (2006). Dissolved organic carbon in ridge-axis and ridge-flank hydrothermal systems. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70, 3830–3842. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2006.04.031
  94. ^ Kerner, M., Hohenberg, H., Ertl, S., Reckermann, M., and Spitzy, A. (2003). Self-organization of dissolved organic matter tomicelle-like microparticles in river water. Nature 422, 150–154. doi: 10.1038/nature01469
  95. ^ Chin, W. C., Orellana, M. V., and Verdugo, P. (1998). Spontaneous assembly of marine dissolved organic matter into polymer gels. Nature 391, 568–572. doi: 10.1038/35345
  96. ^ a b c Moran, M. A., and Zepp, R. G. (1997). Role of photoreactions in the formation of biologically labile compounds from dissolved organic matter. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42, 1307–1316. doi: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.6.1307
  97. ^ a b Mopper, K., Kieber, D. J., and Stubbins, A. (2015). "Marine photochemistry of organic matter", in Biogeochemistry of Marine Dissolved Organic Matter, eds C. A. Carlson and D. A. Hansell (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 389–450. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405940-5.00008-X
  98. ^ Lønborg, C., and Álvarez-Salgado, X. A. (2012). Recycling versus export of bioavailable dissolved organic matter in the coastal ocean and efficiency of the continental shelf pump. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 26:GB3018. doi: 10.1029/2012GB004353
  99. ^ Carlson, C. A., and Hansell, D. A. (2015). "DOM sources, sinks, reactivity, and budgets", in Biogeochemistry of Marine Dissolved Organic Matter, eds C. A. Carlson and D. A. Hansell (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 65–126. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-405940-5.00003-0
  100. ^
    PMID 29416076. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
    .
  101. ^ a b Sholkovitz, E. R. (1976). Flocculation of dissolved organic and inorganic matter during the mixing of river water and seawater. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 40, 831–845. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(76)90035-1
  102. Sieburth, J. M.
    (1989). Effects of flocculated humic matter on free and attached pelagic microorganisms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34, 688–699. doi: 10.4319/lo.1989.34.4.0688
  103. ^ Mulholland, P. J. (1981). Formation of Particulate Organic Carbon in Water from a Southeastern Swamp-Stream. Limnol. Oceanogr. 26, 790–795. doi: 10.4319/lo.1981.26.4.0790
  104. ^ Powell, R. T., Landing, W. M., and Bauer, J. E. (1996). Colloidal trace metals, organic carbon and nitrogen in a southeastern U.S. estuary. Mar. Chem. 55, 165–176. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4203(96)00054-0
  105. ^ Sholkovitz, E. R., Boyle, E. A., and Price, N. B. (1978). The removal of dissolved humic acids and iron during estuarine mixing. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 40, 130–136. doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(78)90082-1
  106. ^ Volk, C., Bell, K., Ibrahim, E., Verges, D., Amy, G., and Lechevallier, M. (2000). Impact of enhanced and optimized coagulation on removal of organic matter and its biodegradable fraction in drinking water. Water Res. 34, 3247–3257. doi: 10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00033-6
  107. ^ Williamson, C. E., Stemberger, R. S., Morris, D. P., Frost, T. A., and Paulsen, S. G. (1996). Ultraviolet radiation in North American lakes: attenuation estimates from DOC measurements and implications for plankton communities. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41, 1024–1034. doi: 10.4319/lo.1996.41.5.1024
  108. ^ Williamson, C. E., Overholt, E. P., Pilla, R. M., Leach, T. H., Brentrup, J. A., Knoll, L. B., et al. (2015). Ecological consequences of longterm browning in lakes. Sci. Rep. 5:18666. doi: 10.1038/srep18666
  109. ^ Jeffrey, W. H., Aas, P., Lyons, M. M., Coffin, R. B., Pledger, R. J., and Mitchell, D. L. (1996). Ambient solar radiation-induced photodamage in marine bacterioplankton. Photochem. Photobiol. 64, 419–427. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb03086.x
  110. ^ Rhode, S. C., Pawlowski, M., and Tollrian, R. (2001). The impact of ultraviolet radiation on the vertical distribution of zooplankton of the genus Daphnia. Nature 412, 69–72. doi: 10.1038/35083567
  111. ^ Miller, W. L., and Zepp, R. G. (1995). Photochemical production of dissolved inorganic carbon from terrestrial organic matter: significance of the oceanic organic carbon cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 417–420. doi: 10.1029/94GL03344
  112. ^ Moran, M. A., Sheldon, W. M., and Zepp, R. G. (2000). Carbon loss and optical property changes during long-term photochemical and biological degradation of estuarine dissolved organic matter. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45, 1254–1264. doi: 10.4319/lo.2000.45.6.1254
  113. ^ Kieber, R. J., Hydro, L. H., and Seaton, P. J. (1997). Photooxidation of triglycerides and fatty acids in seawater: implication toward the formation of marine humic substances. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42, 1454–1462. doi: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.6.1454
  114. ^ Berto, S., Laurentiis, E. D., Tota, T., Chiavazza, E., Daniele, P. G., Minella, M., et al. (2016). Properties of the humic-like material arising from the phototransformation of L-tyrosine. Sci. Total Environ. 546, 434–444. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.047
  115. ^ Hudson, J. J., Dillon, P. J., and Somers, K. M. (2003). Long-term patterns in dissolved organic carbon in boreal lakes: the role of incident radiation, precipitation, air temperature, southern oscillation and acid deposition. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 7, 390–398. doi: 10.5194/hess-7-390-2003
  116. ^ Benner, R., Benitez-Nelson, B., Kaiser, K., and Amon, R. M. W. (2004). Export of young terrigenous dissolved organic carbon from rivers to the Arctic Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31:L05305. doi: 10.1029/2003GL019251
  117. ^ Obernosterer, I., and Herndl, G. J. (1995). Phytoplankton extracellular release and bacterial growth: dependence on the inorganic N:P ratio. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 116, 247–257. doi: 10.3354/meps116247
  118. ^ Benner, R., and Ziegler, S. (1999). "Do photochemical transformations of dissolved organic matter produce biorefractory as well as bioreactive substrates?" in Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Microbial Ecology, eds C. R. Bell, M. Brylinsky, and P. Johnson-Green (Port Aransas, TX: University of Texas at Austin).
  119. ^ Sulzberger, B., and Durisch-Kaiser, E. (2009). Chemical characterization of dissolved organic matter (DOM): a prerequisite for understanding UV-induced changes of DOM absorption properties and bioavailability. Aquat. Sci. 71, 104–126. doi: 10.1007/s00027-008-8082-5
  120. ^ Miller, W. L., and Moran, M. A. (1997). Interaction of photochemical and microbial processes in the degradation of refractory dissolved organic matter from a coastal marine environment. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42, 1317–1324. doi: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.6.1317
  121. ^ Stubbins, A., Uher, G., Law, C. S., Mopper, K., Robinson, C., and Upstill-Goddard, R. C. (2006). Open-ocean carbon monoxide photoproduction. Deep Sea Res. II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 53, 1695–1705. doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2006.05.011
  122. ^ Miller, W. L., Moran, M. A., Sheldon, W. M., Zepp, R. G., and Opsahl, S. (2002). Determination of apparent quantum yield spectra for the formation of biologically labile photoproducts. Limnol. Oceanogr. 47, 343–352. doi: 10.4319/lo.2002.47.2.0343
  123. ^ Andrews, S. S., and Zafiriou, O. C. (2000). Photochemical oxygen consumption in marine waters: a Major soink for colored dissolved organic matter? Limnol. Oceanogr. 45, 267–277. doi: 10.4319/lo.2000.45.2.0267
  124. ^ Wang, X.-C., Chen, R. F., and Gardner, G. B. (2004). Sources and transport of dissolved and particulate organic carbon in the Mississippi River estuary and adjacent coastal waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Mar. Chem. 89, 241–256. doi: 10.1016/j.marchem.2004.02.014
  125. doi:10.1038/ngeo2830
    .
  126. S2CID 7017553
    .
  127. PMID 25385632
    .
  128. doi:10.1016/S0304-4203(96)00075-8
    .
  129. doi:10.3354/meps118283
    .
  130. PMID 16751530
    .
  131. ^
    hdl:1912/3183
    .
  132. ^ Stubbins, A., Niggemann, J., and Dittmar, T. (2012). Photo-lability of deep ocean dissolved black carbon. Biogeosciences 9, 1661–1670. doi: 10.5194/bg-9-1661-2012
  133. ^ Hodson, R. E., Maccubbin, A. E., and Pomeroy, L. R. (1981). Dissolved adenosine triphosphate utilization by free-living and attached bacterioplankton. Mar. Biol. 64, 43–51. doi: 10.1007/bf00394079
  134. ^ Hollibaugh, J. T., and Azam, F. (1983). Microbial degradation of dissolved proteins in seawater. Limnol. Oceanogr. 28, 1104–1116. doi: 10.4319/lo.1983.28.6.1104
  135. ^ Ferguson, R. L., and Sunda, W. G. (1984). Utilization of amino acids by planktonic marine bacteria: importance of clean technique and low substrate additions. Limnol. Oceanogr. 29, 258–274. doi: 10.4319/lo.1984.29.2.0258
  136. ^ Kaiser, K., and Benner, R. (2008). Major bacterial contribution to the ocean reservoir of detrital organic carbon and nitrogen. Limnol. Oceanogr. 53, 99–112. doi: 10.4319/lo.2008.53.1.0099
  137. ISBN 9780124059405
    .
  138. doi:10.4319/lo.1967.12.2.0264
    .
  139. S2CID 28514618
    .
  140. PMID 26253668
    .
  141. ^
    S2CID 36714947
    .
  142. ^
    PMID 24668418
    .
  143. ISSN 0304-4203
    .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dissolved organic carbon.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dissolved_organic_carbon&oldid=1219745894"