Divine madness
Divine madness, also known as theia mania and crazy wisdom, refers to unconventional, outrageous, unexpected, or unpredictable behavior linked to religious or spiritual pursuits. Examples of divine madness can be found in Buddhism, Christianity, Hellenism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism and Shamanism.
It is usually explained as a manifestation of enlightened behavior by persons who have transcended societal norms, or as a means of spiritual practice or teaching among mendicants and teachers. These behaviors may seem to be symptoms of mental illness to mainstream society, but are a form of religious ecstasy, or deliberate "strategic, purposeful activity,"[1] "by highly self-aware individuals making strategic use of the theme of madness in the construction of their public personas".[2]
Cross-cultural parallels
According to June McDaniel and other scholars, divine madness is found in the history and practices of many cultures and may reflect religious ecstasy or expression of divine love.[3] Plato in his Phaedrus and his ideas on theia mania, the Hasidic Jews, Eastern Orthodoxy, Western Christianity, Sufism along with Indian religions all bear witness to the phenomenon of divine madness.[4] It is not the ordinary form of madness, but a behavior that is consistent with the premises of a spiritual path or a form of complete absorption in God.[3][5]
DiValerio notes that comparable "mad saint" traditions exist in Buddhist, Hindu, Islamic and Christian cultures, but warns against "flights of fancy" that too easily draw comparisons between these various phenomena.[6]
Ancient Greece and Rome: theia mania
Theia mania (
Socrates describes four types of divine madness:[10][12]
- the prophetic frenzy of the )
- mystical revelations and initiations, which provide "a way of release for those in need" (the gift of Dionysus)
- poetic inspiration (the gift of the Muses)
- the madness of lovers (the gift of Aphrodite and Eros)
Plato expands on these ideas in another dialogue, Ion.
One well-known manifestation of divine madness in ancient Greece was in the cult of the Maenads, the female followers of Dionysus. However, little is known about their rituals; the famous depiction of the cult in Euripides' play The Bacchae cannot be considered historically accurate.[13]
The Roman poet Virgil, in Book VI of his Aeneid, describes the Cumaean Sibyl as prophesying in a frenzied state:[14]
While at the door they paused, the virgin cried:
"Ask now thy doom!—the god! the god is nigh!"
So saying, from her face its color flew,
Her twisted locks flowed free, the heaving breast
Swelled with her heart's wild blood; her stature seemed
Vaster, her accent more than mortal man,
As all th' oncoming god around her breathed...
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
The 6th-century Saint Simeon, states Feuerstein, simulated insanity with skill. Simeon found a dead dog, tied a cord to the corpse's leg and dragged it through the town, outraging the people. To Simeon the dead dog represented a form of baggage people carry in their spiritual life. He would enter the local church and throw nuts at the congregation during the liturgy, which he later explained to his friend that he was denouncing the hypocrisy in worldly acts and prayers.[7]
Religious ecstasy-type madness was interpreted as good by early Christians, in the Platonic sense. Yet, as Greek philosophy went out of favor in Christian theology, so did these ideas. In the age of Renaissance, charismatic madness regained interest and popular imagination, as did the Platonic proposal of four types of "good madness".[12] In a Christian theological context, these were interpreted in part as divine rapture, an escape from the restraint of society, a frenzy for freedom of the soul.[12]
In the 20th-century,
Islam
Divine madness is a theme in some forms of
According to Sadeq Rahimi, the Sufi description of divine madness in mystical union mirrors those associated with mental illness.[25] He writes,
The similarities between the Sufi formulation of divine madness and the folk experience of psychosis are too clear and too frequent among the Turkish patients to be treated as coincidences.[25]
In West African version of Sufism, according to Lynda Chouiten, examples of insane saints are a part of Maraboutisme where the mad and idiotic behavior of a marabout was compared to a mental illness and considered a form of divine folly, of holiness. However, adds Chouiten, Sufism has been accommodating of such divine madness behavior unlike orthodox Islam.[26]
Indian religions
Hinduism
The theme of divine madness appears in all major traditions of Hinduism (Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism), both in its mythologies as well as its saints, accomplished mendicants and teachers.[9] They are portrayed as if they are acting mad or crazy, challenging social assumptions and norms as a part of their spiritual pursuits or resulting thereof.[9]
Avadhuta
According to Feuerstein, the designation
Bhakti
The
McDaniel notes that the actual behavior and experiences of ecstatics may violate the expected behavior as based on texts. While texts describe "stages of religious development and gradual growth of insight and emotion," real-life experiences may be "a chaos of states that must be forced into a religious mold," in which they often don't fit.[34] This discrepancy may lead to a mistaken identification of those experiences as "mad" or "possessed," and the application of exorcism and Ayurvedic treatments to fit those ecstatics into the mold.[34]
McDaniel refers to
The path of gradual progression is called sastriya dharma, "the path of scriptural injunctions."[37] It is associated with order and control, and "loyalty to lineage and tradition, acceptance of hierarchy and authority, and ritual worship and practice."[37] In contrast, the path of sudden breakthrough is asastriya, "not according to the scriptures."[37] It is associated with "chaos and passion, and the divine is reached by unpredictable visions and revelations."[37] The divine can be found in such impure surroundings and items as burning grounds, blood and sexuality.[37] Divine experience is not determined by loyalty to lineage and gurus, and various gurus may be followed.[37] According to McDaniel, divine madness is a major aspect of this breakthrough approach.[37]
Tibetan Buddhism: nyönpa, drubnyon, and "Crazy Wisdom"
Holy Madmen
In Tibetan Buddhism, nyönpa (Wylie: smyon pa), tantric "crazy yogis," are part of the Nyingma-tradition[38][39][40] and the Kagyu-tradition.[41] Their behavior may seem to be scandalous, according to conventional standards,[40] but the archetypal siddha is a defining characteristic of the nyingma-tradition, which differs significantly from the more scholarly orientated Gelugpa-tradition.[40] Its founder, Padmasambhava (India, 8th century), is an archetypal siddha, who is still commemorated by yearly dances.[40] Milarepa (c.1052–c.1135 CE), the founder of the Kagyu-school, is also closely connected to the notion of divine madness in Tibetan Buddhism.[41] His biography was composed by Tsangnyön Heruka (1452-1507), "the Madman of Tsang," a famous nyönpa.[42] Other famous madmen are Drukpa Kunley (1455–1529) and the Madman of Ü. Together they are also known as "the Three Madmen" (smyon pa gsum).[43] Indian siddhas, and their Tibetan counterparts, also played an essential role in the Tibetan Renaissance (c.950-1250 CE), when Buddhism was re-established in Tibet.[44]
According to DiValerio, the Tibetan term nyönpa refers to siddhas, yogins and lamas whose "mad" behavior is "symptomatic of high achievement in religious practice."[45] This behavior is most widely understood in Tibet as "a symptom of the individuals being enlightened and having transcended ordinary worldly delusions."[46] Their unconventional behavior is seen by Tibetans as a sign of their transcendence of namtok (Sanskrit: vipalka), "conceptual formations or false ideations."[46] While their behavior may be seen as repulsive from a dualistic point of view, the enlightened view transcends the dualistic view of repulsive and nonrepulsive.[46]
It is regarded as manifesting naturally, not intentionally, though it is sometimes also interpreted as intentional behavior "to help unenlightened beings realize the emptiness of phenomena, or as part of the yogin's own training toward that realization."
According to DiValerio, the term drupton nyönpa is regarded by Tibetans as an oxymoron, a contradiction in terms, and so
An insane person cannot be a siddha, and a siddha, by definition, cannot be insane - at least, not in the medical understanding of madness.[43]
DiValerio also argues that their unconventional behavior is "strategic, purposeful activity, rather than being the byproduct of a state of enlightenment,"[1] and concludes that "the "holy madman" tradition is constituted by highly self-aware individuals making strategic use of the theme of madness in the construction of their public personas,"[2] arguing that
...the distinctive eccentric behavior of the Madmen of Ü and Tsang is best understood as a form of "tantric fundamentalism" in that it was based on following a literal reading of the Highest Yoga tantras, enacted as a strategic response to changes taking place in late 15th-century Tibetan religious culture. The "madness" of Drukpa Künlé resulted from his taking a critical stance towards Tibetan religious culture in general.[49]
Crazy Wisdom
In some Buddhist literature, the phrase "crazy wisdom" is associated with the teaching methods of
We go on deeper and deeper and deeper and deeper, until we reach the point where there is no answer. [...] At that point we tend to give up hope of an answer, or of anything whatsoever, for that matter. [...] This hopelessness is the essence of crazy wisdom. It is hopeless, utterly hopeless.[54][note 4]
Since Chögyam Trungpa described crazy wisdom in various ways, DiValerio has suggested that Trungpa did not have a fixed idea of crazy wisdom.[55]
According to DiValerio, Keith Dowman's The Divine Madman: The Sublime Life and Songs of Drukpa Kunley is "the single most influential document in shaping how Euro-Americans have come to think about Tibetan holy madman phenomenon."[56] Dowman's understanding of the holymadmen is akin to the Tibetan interpretations, seeing the Tibetan holy madmen as "crazy" by conventional standards, yet noting that compared to the Buddhist spiritual ideal "it is the vast majority of us who are insane."[57] Dowman also suggests other explanations for Drukpa Künlé’s unconventional behavior, including criticising institutionalized religion, and acting as a catalysator for direct insight.[58] According to DiValerio, Dowman's view of Künlé as criticising Tibetan religious institutions is not shared by contemporary Tibetan religious specialist, but part of Dowman's own criticism of religious institutions.[59] DiValerio further notes that "Dowman’s presentation of Drukpa Künlé as roundly anti-institutional [had] great influence [...] in shaping (and distorting) the Euro-American world’s thinking on the subject."[60][note 5]
According to Feuerstein, who was influenced by Chogyam Trungpa,
Immediatism
Arthur Versluis notes that several or most of the teachers who are treated by Feuerstein as exemplary for divine madness, or crazy wisdom, are exemplary for immediatism.[62] These include Adi Da, the teacher of Feuerstein, and Rajneesh.[62] "Immediatism" refers to "a religious assertion of spontaneous, direct, unmediated spiritual insight into reality (typically with little or no prior training), which some term 'enlightenment'."[63] According to Versluis, immediatism is typical for Americans, who want "the fruit of religion, but not its obligations."[64] Although immediatism has its roots in European culture and history[63] as far back as Platonism,[65] and also includes Perennialism,[66] Versluis points to Ralph Waldo Emerson as its key ancestor,[63] who "emphasized the possibility of immediate, direct spiritual knowledge and power."[65]
Versluis notes that traditional Tibetan Buddhism is not immediatist, since Mahamudra and Dzogchen "are part of a fairly stricted controlled ritual and meditative practice and tradition."
Shamanism
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017) |
According to Mircea Eliade, divine madness is a part of Shamanism, a state that a pathologist or psychologist is likely to diagnose as a mental disease or aberrant psychological condition. However, state Eliade and Harry Eiss, this would be a misdiagnosis because the Shaman is "in control of the mystic state, rather than the psychotic state being in control of him".[72] A Shaman predictably enters into the trance state, with rituals such as music and dance, then comes out of it when he wants to. A mental illness lacks these characteristics. Further, at least to the participants, the Shaman's actions and trance has meaning and power, either as a healer or in another spiritual sense.[72][73]
See also
- Antinomianism
- Bipolar disorder
- Demonic possession
- Divine ecstasy
- Foolishness for Christ
- Heyoka
- Ikkyū
- Ji Gong
- Mental health of Jesus
- Village idiot
Notes
- ^ Feuerstein: "The appellation "avadhuta," more than any other, came to be associated with the apparently crazy modes of behaviour of some paramahamsas, who dramatize the reversal of social norms, a behaviour characteristic of their spontaneous lifestyle. Their frequent nakedness is perhaps the most symbolic expression of this reversal."[27]
- ISBN 978-0-520-23798-8
Bernard Faure, The Rhetorics of Immediacy - ^ a b DiValerio questions the reliability of Feuerstein's account: "Feuerstein is by his own admission an advocate of spirituality rather than a scholar of religion. But what he lacks in scholarly rigor, he makes up for in popular appeal and book sales. Unrestrained by indebtedness to traditional Tibetan ways of thinking or to scholarly standards, writers like Feuerstein and Dowman are free to tailor their accounts for western readers.[51]
- ^ Trungpa: "Instead we explore further and further and further without looking for an answer. [...] We don't make a big point or an answer out of any one thing. For example, we might think that because we have discovered one particular thing that is wrong with us, that must be it, that must be the problem, that must be the answer. No. We don't fixate on that, we go further. "Why is that the case?" We look further and further. We ask: "Why is this so?" Why is there spirituality? Why is there awakening? Why is there this moment of relief? Why is there such a thing as discovering the pleasure of spirituality? Why, why, why?" We go on deeper and deeper and deeper and deeper, until we reach the point where there is no answer. [...] At that point we tend to give up hope of an answer, or of anything whatsoever, for that matter. [...] This hopelessness is the essence of crazy wisdom. It is hopeless, utterly hopeless."[54]
- ^ Compare Spiritual but not religious.
References
- ^ a b DiValerio 2011, p. ii.
- ^ a b DiValerio 2011, p. iii.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-936862-4.
- ^ McDaniel 1989, p. 3-6.
- ^ McLeod 2009, p. 158-165.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 3-4.
- ^ a b c Feuerstein 1991, p. 69.
- ^ Horgan 2004, p. 53.
- ^ S2CID 161324332.
- ^ a b c Plato, Phaedrus 244-245; 265a–b.
- ISBN 978-1-4438-4675-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-32383-3.
- ISBN 978-3-16-153813-1.
- ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.45–51.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-23416-1.
- ISBN 978-0-334-04626-4.
- ISBN 978-1-61069-403-2.
- ^ John Gordon Melton, Pentecostalism, Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ISBN 978-0-307-27727-5.
- ISBN 978-0-307-27727-5.
- ^ Feuerstein 2006, p. 15f; 28-32.
- S2CID 145576026.
- ISBN 9780862324438.
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-1-317-55551-3.
- ISBN 978-0-7391-8593-3.
- ^ a b c d Feuerstein 1991, p. 105.
- ^ Feuerstein 1991, pp. 104–105.
- ISBN 978-0-19-536137-7.
- ^ McDaniel 1989, p. 1-2.
- ^ a b McDaniel 1989, p. 2.
- ^ McDaniel 1989, p. 3.
- ^ Dimock 1966.
- ^ a b c McDaniel 1989, p. 4.
- ^ a b c McDaniel 1989, p. 5.
- ^ McDaniel 1989, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d e f g McDaniel 1989, p. 6.
- ^ Curren 2008, p. 43.
- ^ White 2001, p. 16.
- ^ a b c d Pettit 2013.
- ^ a b DiValerio 2015, p. 4.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 5.
- ^ a b DiValerio 2015, p. 6.
- ^ Larson 2007.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d DiValerio 2015, p. 7.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 8.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 9.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. ii-iii.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 242.
- ^ a b c DiValerio 2015, p. 241.
- ^ Bell 2002, p. 233.
- ^ Trungpa 2001.
- ^ a b Trungpa 2001, p. 9-10.
- ^ DiValerio 2015, p. 239.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. 27.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. 28-29.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. 29.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. 31-32.
- ^ DiValerio 2011, p. 32.
- ^ a b Royster 1992.
- ^ a b Versluis 2014, p. 237.
- ^ a b c Versluis 2014, p. 2.
- ^ American Gurus: Seven Questions for Arthur Versluis Archived April 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Versluis 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 238.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 239.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 239-240.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 240-244.
- ^ Versluis 2014, p. 244.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4438-3329-5.
- ISBN 9780061319433.
Sources
- Ardussi, J.; Epstein, L. (1978). "The Saintly Madman in Tibet". Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface. James F. Fisher (ed.). Paris: Mouton & Co.: 327–338. ISBN 9027977003. Archived from the original on 2016-01-14.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link - Bell, S. (2002), "Scandals in Emerging Western Buddhism" (PDF), Westward Dharma : Buddhism beyond Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press
- Curren, Erik D. (2008), Buddha's Not Smiling: Uncovering Corruption at the Heart of Tibetan Buddhism Today, Motilall Banarsidass
- Dimock, Edward C. Jr. (1966), The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya cult of Bengal, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 8120809963
- DiValerio, David Michael (2011), Subversive Sainthood and Tantric Fundamentalism: An Historical Study of Tibet's Holy Madmen, University of Virginia (PhD-thesis)
- DiValerio, David (2015), The Holy Madmen of Tibet, Oxford University Press
- ISBN 1-55778-250-4
- ISBN 1-890772-54-2
- Feuerstein, Georg (2013), The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice
- Horgan, John (2004), Rational Mysticism: Dispatches from the Border Between Science and Spirituality, New York: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 061844663X
- Kakar, Sudir (2009). Mad and Divine: Spirit and Psyche in the Modern World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226422879.
- Larson, Stefan (2007), Crazy Yogins During the Early Renaissance Period
- McDaniel, June (1989), The madness of the saints: ecstatic religion in Bengal, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-55723-5
- McLeod, Melvin (2009), The Best Buddhist Writing 2009, Boston: Shambhala Publications, ISBN 978-1590307342
- Phan, Peter C. (2004). Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue (PDF). Maryknoll: Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-565-5. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
- Pettit, John W. (2013), Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection, Simon and Schuster
- ISBN 1590302079.
- Royster, James E. (1992), "Divine Sabotahe. Review of: "Holy Madness: Spirituality, Crazy-Wise Teachers, And Enlightenment"", Yoga Journal
- ISBN 0-87773-910-2
- ISBN 1-57062-720-7.
- Versluis, Arthur (2014), American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion, Oxford University Press
- White, David Gordon (2001), Tantra in Practice, Motilal Banarsidass
Further reading
- DiValerio, David (2015), The Holy Madmen of Tibet, Oxford University Press
- DiValerio, David (2016), The Life of the Madman of Ü, Oxford University Press
- Green, Nile (2007). "The Faqir And The Subalterns: Mapping The Holy Man In Colonial South Asia". Journal of Asian History. 41 (1): 57–84. JSTOR 41925391.
- Kobets, Svitlana (2008). "Folly, Foolishness, Foolery". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 50 (3–4). Informa UK: 491–497. S2CID 162375034.
- Madigan, A. J. (2010). Henry Chinaski, Zen Master: Factotum, the Holy Fool, and the Critique of Work. American Studies in Scandinavia, 42(2), 75-94. http://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/assc/article/download/4413/4842
- Phan, Peter C. (2001). "The Wisdom of Holy Fools in Postmodernity". Theological Studies. 62 (4). SAGE: 730–752. S2CID 73527317.
- Stewart, E.A. (1999). Jesus the Holy Fool. Sheed & Ward. ISBN 978-1-58051-061-5.
- Syrkin, Alexander Y. (1982). "On the Behavior of the "Fool for Christ's Sake"". History of Religions. 22 (2). University of Chicago Press: 150–171. S2CID 162216822.
- Zebiri, K. (2012). ""Holy Foolishness" and "Crazy Wisdom" As Teaching Styles In Contemporary Western Sufism". Religion & Literature. 44 (2): 93–122. JSTOR 24397671.
External links
- Stefan Larsson, Crazy Yogins During the Early Renaissance Period