Djong (ship)
This article's factual accuracy is disputed. (April 2024) |
The djong, jong, or jung is a type of sailing ship originating from
Djongs are used mainly as seagoing passenger and cargo vessels. They traveled as far as the
For their war fleet, the Malays prefer to use shallow draught, oared longships similar to the galley, such as lancaran, penjajap, and kelulus.[note 2] This is very different from the Javanese who prefer long-range, deep-draught round ships such as jong and malangbang. The reason for this difference is that the Malays operated their ships in riverine water, sheltered straits zone, and archipelagic environment and also open high sea, while the Javanese are often active in the open and high sea. After contact with Iberian people, both the Javanese and Malay fleets began to use the ghurab and ghali more frequently.[6]: 270–277, 290–291, 296–301 [11]: 148, 155
Etymology
It was claimed the word jong, jung, or junk comes from the Min Chinese word jüng (Chinese: 船; pinyin: chuán; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: chûn; lit. 'boat', 'ship').[12] However, Chinese ocean-going tradition in Southeast Asia was relatively new – until the 12th century, most trade between the regions was carried in Southeast Asian vessels.[13] Paul Pelliot and Waruno Mahdi reject the Chinese origin of the name.[14][15]: 38 Instead, it may be derived from "jong" (transliterated as joṅ) in Old Javanese which means ship.[16]: 748 The first record of Old Javanese jong comes from Sembiran inscriptions in Bali dating to the 11th century CE.[17]: 82 The word was recorded in the Malay language by the 15th century[18]: 60 thus practically excludes the Chinese origin of the word in Malay.[19]: 266 The late 15th century Undang-Undang Laut Melaka, a maritime code composed by Javanese shipowners in Melaka,[20]: 39 uses jong frequently as the word for freight ships.[18]: 60 European writings from 1345 through 1609 use a variety of related terms, including jonque (French), ioncque, ionct, giunchi, zonchi (Italian), iuncque, joanga, juanga (Spanish), junco (Portuguese), and ionco, djonk, jonk (Dutch).[21][22]: 299 [18]: 60
The origin of the word "junk" in the English language, can be traced to the Portuguese word junco, which is rendered from the Arabic word j-n-k (جنك). This word comes from the fact that Arabic script cannot represent the digraph "ng".[15]: 37 The word used to denote both the Javanese ship (jong) and the Chinese ship (chuán), even though the two were markedly different vessels. After the disappearance of jong in the 17th century, the meaning of "junk" (and other similar words in European languages), which until then was used as a transcription of the word "jong" in Javanese and Malay, changed its meaning to exclusively refer to the Chinese ship.[23]: 204 [15]: 222
People from the
The
For seafaring, the Austronesian people invented the
During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java.[6]: 233–234, 239–240 This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various types of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places.[6]: 56–60, 286–291 Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offered services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.[6]: 233–234, 239–240 It was also during the Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such a place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania.[30]: 248–251
The
When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:[4]: 64 [34]: 98–99
...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of nutmeg and mace, and the land of the King of Siam, and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese, the direction it takes, and how they do not navigate farther.
— Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, 1 April 1512.
A Portuguese account described how the Javanese people already had advanced seafaring skills and had communicated with Madagascar in 1645:[36][37]: 311 [18]: 57 [38]: 51
The Javanese are all men very experienced in the art of navigation, to the point that they claim to be the most ancient of all, although many others give this honor to the Chinese, and affirm that this art was handed on from them to the Javanese. But it is certain that they formerly navigated to the Cape of Good Hope and were in communication with the east coast of the island of São Lourenço (San Laurenzo — Madagascar), where there are many brown and Javanese-like natives who say they are descended from them.
— Diogo do Couto, Decada Quarta da Asia
Research in 2016 showed that the
Description
Around 1420 a ship, or junk, from India crossed the Sea of India towards the Island of Men and the Island of Women, off Cape Diab, between the Green Islands and the shadows. It sailed for 40 days in a south-westerly direction without ever finding anything other than wind and water. According to these people themselves, the ship went some 2,000 miles ahead until — once favourable conditions came to an end — it turned round and sailed back to Cape Diab in 70 days.
The ships called junks (lit. "Zonchi") that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a
astrologer, who stands on the side and, with an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator.: 58
—Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09-P25Duarte Barbosa reported that the great ships from Java, called junco, which have four masts, are very different from Portuguese ships. A Javanese ship is made of very thick wood, and as it gets old, the Javanese fix it with new planks, this way they have 3–4 planks, one above the other. The rope and the sail are made with woven rattan.[44]: 191–192 [15]: 37–38 The Javanese junks were made using jati wood (teak) at the time of his report (1515), at that time Chinese junks were still using softwood as their main material.[33]: 145 The Javanese ship's hull is formed by joining planks and keel with wooden dowels and treenails, without using iron bolts or nails. The frame would be built later, after the planking (the "shell first" construction). The planks are perforated by an auger and inserted with dowels, which remain inside the fastened planks, not seen from the outside.[45]: 268 [46]: 612 [47]: 138 The hull was pointed at both ends, they carried two rudders and used tanja sail, but it may also use junk sail,[48]: 37 a sail of Indonesian origin.[49]: 191–192 On top of the mast there is a top or gávea, which is used for observation and fighting.[50]: 217 [51][52][53] They were very different from the Chinese ships, whose hulls were joined by iron nails and strakes to a frame and bulkheads. The Chinese vessel had a single rudder, and (except in Fujian and Guangdong) they had flat bottoms without keels.[18]
Historical engravings also depict the usage of
pintle and gudgeon rudder). Alternatively, it may have been a long sweep to aid in harbor maneuvers.[45]: 268, 270, 272–273 [58]: 24 A jong has about 1:3 to 1:4 beam-to-length ratio,[6]: 292 which makes it fall into the category of "round ship".[7]: 148 and 169Barbosa also reported various goods carried by these ships, which include rice, meat of cows, sheep, pigs, and deer, dried and salted, many chickens, garlic, and onions. Traded weapons include lances, dagger, and swords, worked in inlaid metal and very good steel. Also brought with them
Tenasserim, Pegu (Bago), Bengal, Pulicat, Coromandel, Malabar, Cambay (Khambat), and Aden. From the notes of other authors, it is known that there were also those who went to the Maldives, Calicut (Kozhikode), Oman, Aden, and the Red Sea. The passenger brought their wives and children, even some of them never leave the ship to go on shore, nor have any other dwelling, for they are born and die in the ship.[44]: 191–193 [23]: 199 It is known that ships made with teak could last for 200 years.[59]: 147The size and construction of the jong required expertise and materials that were not necessarily available in many places, therefore the Javanese junks were mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centers around Java: north coastal Java, especially around
Burmese teak.[20]: 42, 282While the Malays of Malacca of the 16th century owned jongs, they were not built by the Malay people or by the
Sultanate of Malacca. Malacca only produces small vessels, not large vessels. Large shipbuilding industry does not exist in Malacca — their industry is not capable producing deep-sea ships; only small, light, fast-sailing vessels. The people of Malacca purchased big ships (jong) from other parts of Southeast Asia, namely from Java and Pegu, they did not built them.[60]: 250 [61]: 39 [62]: 124 [63]History
Early eras
European age of discovery
Florentine merchant Giovanni da Empoli (1483–1517), one of the first Italian agents to join a Portuguese armada to India in 1503–1504,[92] said that in the land of Java, a junk is no different in its strength than a castle, because it had three and four boards, one above the other, which cannot be harmed with artillery. They sail with their women, children, and family, and everyone has room for themselves.[93]: 58
Passing by Pacem (Samudera Pasai Sultanate) the Portuguese came across two junks, one was from
In late 1512 – January 1513
The junk of Pati Unus is the largest seen by men of these parts so far. It carried a thousand fighting men on board, and your Lordship can believe me . . . that it was an amazing thing to see, because the Anunciada near it did not look like a ship at all. We attacked it with bombards, but even the shots of the largest did not pierce it below the water-line, and (the shots of) the esfera (Portuguese large cannon)[note 10] I had in my ship went in but did not pass through; it had three sheathings, all of which were over a cruzado thick.[note 11] And it certainly was so monstrous that no man had ever seen the like. It took three years to build, as your Lordship may have heard tell in Malacca concerning this Pati Unus, who made this armada to become king of Malacca.
— Fernão Pires de Andrade[103]: 58–60
Fernão Lopes de Castanheda noted that Pati Unus' junk is built with 7 layers of planking, called lapis in Javanese and Malay, between each layer was put a coating consisting of a mixture of bitumen, lime, and oil.[24]: 294 [104]: 269 Pati Unus was using it as a floating fortress for blockading the area around Malacca.[83]: 94
The Portuguese remarked that such large, unwieldy ships were weaknesses. The Portuguese succeeded in repelling the attack using smaller but more maneuverable ships, using boarding tactics and setting fire to the junks.[24]: 294 They did not specify the exact size of Pati Unus' junk. Irawan Djoko Nugroho suggested that it has a length of 4–5 times the Flor do Mar (a nau).[6]: 307 This would make its size about 144–180 m, with the tonnage between 1600 and 2000 tons.[6][note 12] Pierre-Yves Manguin put it as low as 1000 tons.[19]: 266 Muhammad Averoes calculated the size by determining its displacement first, and obtained that the Pati Unus' junk has a displacement tonnage of 5556 tons and deadweight of 2000 tons, with an LOA of 88.56 m and LOD of 80.51 m.[5]: 59–62
Impressed by the Javanese's skill in shipbuilding, Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders from the Malacca shipyard and sent them to India, with the hope that these craftsmen will be able to repair Portuguese ships in India. But they never arrived in India, they rebelled and took the Portuguese ship they boarded to Pasai, where they were welcomed extraordinarily.
Tomé Pires in 1515 wrote that the authorities of Canton (Guangzhou) made a law that obliged foreign ships to anchor at an island off-shore. He said that the Chinese made this law about banning ships from Canton for fear of the Javanese and Malays, for it was believed that one of their junks would rout 20 Chinese junks. China had more than a thousand junks, but one ship of 400 tons could depopulate Canton, and this depopulation would bring great loss to China. The Chinese feared that the city would be taken from them, because Canton was one of China's wealthiest city.[33]: 122–123
-
Cropped portion of Indian Ocean in the Miller Atlas, showing 2 jongs, one is a 6-masted ship viewed from aft, the other is a 7-masted ship. The ships are probably drawn as a reference to Pati Unus' flagship, owing to the number of sails and crescent moon symbol which represent Islam.
-
Cropped portion of China Sea, showing six and three-masted jong. It is probably referencing to large Majapahit jong of the 14–15th centuries or the single Pati Unus junk of 1512–1513. The lack of crescent moon symbol indicated that these jongs must be hailed from the non-muslim area in Java, probably owned by the kingdom of Majapahit or Sunda.
-
Also showing a portion of the China Sea, this one is a 5-masted jong, probably from Demak Sultanate in Central Java.
In 1574, queen Kalinyamat of Jepara Sultanate attacked the Portuguese Malacca with 300 vessels under the command of Kyai Demang, which included 80 jongs weighing up to 400 tons burthen and 220 kelulus, although with very little artillery and firearms. As the supplies were dwindling and the air corrupted by disease,[108][23]: 212 Tristão Vaz da Veiga decided to arm a small fleet of a galley and four half-galleys and about 100 soldiers and head out to the River of Malaios,[clarification needed] in the middle of the night. Once there, the Portuguese fleet entered the river undetected by the Javanese crews, and resorting to hand-thrown fire bombs set fire to about 30 junks and other crafts, catching the enemy fleet entirely by surprise, and capturing ample supplies amidst the panicking Javanese. After a 3-month siege, the Javanese retreated.[109]: 395–397
Recounting his 10 years in the East Indies (1601–1611), François Pyrard of Raval (ca. 1578–1623) mentioned a wreck of a Sundanese junk in Guradu, South Malé Atoll, Maldives. The ship was carrying all kinds of spices and other merchandise from China and Sunda. On board were about 500 men, women, and children, and only 100 were saved during its sinking. The king of Maldives asserted that it was the richest ship conceivable. Pyrard thought it was the largest ship he has ever seen, with the mast being taller and thicker than those of Portuguese carracks, and the top was much larger than those of Portugal. The Sundanese queen's parents were the owner of the junk, both were drowned in the sinking. The queen, which was only a child during the sinking, survived. Pyrard believed that in Indonesia, there were built ships larger and of better material than in Portugal or any other place in the world.[51][52][53]
The Dutch in the late 16th and early 17th centuries found that the Javanese jongs sailing in Southeast Asia were smaller than in previous centuries.[23]: 199 Willem Lodewycksz noted that Bantenese junk had a capacity of not more than 20 last (40 tons).[110]: 202 [3]: 133 Willem Lodewycksz's report on one of the jongs he saw in Banten in 1596 reads:
(Seated at the stern) were two men steering: Because (the ship) had two rudders, one on each side, and a pole in the middle which is tied to the ship with ropes under the stern (...). (These jongs) are their ships which they use to navigate the open seas to Maluku, Banda, Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca. They have a bowsprit on the front, and near it a front mast, (and there is also) a mainmast and a
square sail except for the bowsprit sail, under it (inside the hull) is divided into small spaces where they store the cargo. They enter through the openings on either side of the ship and this is where their fireplace/chimney is located.[110]: 200–201 [3]: 131 [58]: 33 [111]: 248
The first jong encountered by the Dutch in Banten was only 16 last (32 tons) in size. The jong of Banten is mostly made in Banjarmasin, Borneo.[3]: 71, 132 But it's certain that Lodewycksz never saw the leviathans of Central Java, such as those from Semarang and Jepara.[18]: 79 In December 1664, Wouter Schouten described the great jong of Java:
They build large ships commonly called joncken (jong), which by the Javanese are used more for commerce than for warfare, some are so large that they could carry 200–300 last (400–600 tons). These are equipped with a bowsprit, foresail mast, large mast, and mizzen; but they don't have topmasts, no mars (top)[note 14] nor upper sails like ours but large square lower sails made of straw or coconut bark. The upper deck of these jongs stays unusually high when the cargo is placed under the body storage. The shipmates are divided over multiple small rooms and chambers; the stern hangs like a farmer's outhouse miraculously sticking out very far over the water; you can also find a cabin for the captain there or the supercargo who is responsible for the handling of business. Because the Chinese and the Javanese depart on journeys with these jong and other types of ships for some weeks or months they usually take their wives and children with them. This means they learn the discomfort of a sailor's life from a young age.[113]: Volume III: 160
Decline
Anthony Reid argues that the failure of the jong in battles against smaller and more agile Western ships may have convinced the Javanese shipbuilders that the large but less agile jong faced too much risk against the European style of naval battle, so the ships they built later were smaller and faster.[114]: 201 Since the mid-16th century the maritime forces of the archipelago began to use new types of agile naval vessels that could be equipped with larger cannons: In various attacks on Portuguese Malacca after the defeat of Pati Unus, they no longer used jong but used lancaran, ghurab, and ghali.[23]: 205–213 [11]: 162–165 The jongs that plied the archipelago post-1600s were ranging from 20 to 200 tons deadweight, with a possible average of 100 tons,[23]: 199 but there are still several of them that could load 200–300 lasts (about 360–400 to 540–600 metric tons)[note 15] in the early 1700s.[115]: 223
Production of djongs ended in the 1700s, perhaps because of the decision of
Replica
A small-sized replica is moored along the Marine March of Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore.[120]
In popular culture
Jong is an Indonesian unique unit in
See also
- List of longest wooden ships
- Ghurab, another large trading ship of Nusantara
- Chinese treasure ship
- Borobudur ship
- Geobukseon/turtle ship
- Atakebune
Notes
- ^ The tonnage used in this page (unless stated otherwise) is DWT or deadweight tonnage, a measure of how much cargo a ship can carry, including the weight of passengers and supplies.
- ^ During the 1511 Portuguese attack on Malacca Sultanate, the Malays use lancaran (lanchara) and penjajap (pangajaoa).[9] Kelulus (calaluz) was used on several expeditions before and after the fall of Malacca.[10]
- ^ Grape wine was not found in Nusantara. The possibility that is meant here is palm wine.
- ^ While Needham mentioned the size as 2000 tons, Major gives the size as 2000 butts (Major, R. H., ed. (1857), "The travels of Niccolo Conti", India in the Fifteenth Century, Hakluyt Society, p. 27), which would be around a 1000 tons, a butt being half a ton. See the definition of butt at https://gizmodo.com/butt-is-an-actual-unit-of-measurement-1622427091. Until the 17th century, ton referred to both the unit of weight and the unit of volume — see https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ton Archived 2019-03-29 at the Wayback Machine. A tun is 252 gallons, which weighs 2092 lbs, which is around a ton.
- "gangplank", "brow", or "gangway".
- ^ The Javanese people have a custom of setting fire to their own ship when they perceive that they were overpowered and their ship would be captured.[95]
- ^ The fire was created by burning olio da terra [an oil from the earth], found in great quantities near Pedir, where it flows forth from a fountain. The Muslims call this oil “Naptha” and doctors consider it remarkable and an excellent remedy for some illnesses. The Portuguese obtained some and found it very useful for treating coisas de frialdade e compressão dos nervios (low temperatures and nervous tension).[96]
- ^ Transcript from Gaspar Correia: "Because the junco started the attack, the Governor approached him with his entire fleet. The Portuguese ships began firing on the junco, but it had no effect at all. Then the junco sailed away ... The Portuguese ships then fired on the junco masts ... and the sails are falling. Because it's so tall, our people dare not board it, and our shots did not spoil it one bit because the junco has four layers of board. Our largest cannon was only able to penetrate no more than two layers ... Seeing that, the Governor ordered his nau (carrack) to move to the side of the junco. This ship is Flor de la Mar, the highest Portuguese ship. And while trying to climb the junco, the rear of the ship could barely reach its bridge. The junco’s crew defended themselves so well that the Portuguese ships were forced to sail away from the ship again. (After two days and two nights of fighting) the Governor decides to break the two rudders at the side of the vessel. Only then did the junco surrender."
- rentaka type, a type of small and medium–sized cannon mounted on the gunwale. Larger fixed cannon of Malay ships usually mounted on the forward-facing apilan (gunshield).
- ^ The espera or esfera is a large Portuguese muzzle-loading cannon. It has a length of 2–5 meters with a weight of up to 1800 kg, usually used on caravels. The espera fires a 12–20 pound (5.44–9.1 kg) cannonball.[101]
- ^ A kind of Portuguese coin with a diameter of 3.8 cm.[102]
- ^ In his book, Nugroho thought that Flor do Mar was about 78.3 m long, which would have made Pati Unus' junk gigantic as 313.2–391.5 m long. In this case, he used the length of Adler von Lübeck (1566) for Flor do Mar's length. The length figure represented before the citation is calculated using the size of Flor do Mar replica's in Malacca Maritime museum, which is 36 m long.
- ^ From a letter from king João III to Conde da Castanheira, dated 22 August 1536: "Pareceo me bem mandardes a Sacavem pelo galleam Trimdade e pelo junco" (It seems to me that you did right in ordering the deployment of the galleon Trimdade and the jong, which were at Sacavem).
- ^ Correia mentioned gauea (gávea) while Pyrard mentioned "top". Schouten was probably describing the large top like those of Dutch ships, which is used for structural connection between the upper and lower mast. Witsen says: "As for the tops (mars) they are to hold the masts steady, for which the shrouds are fastened to it at either side; and also to provide room for the seamen, on which to stand, when they have something to do up there".[112]
- ^ A last was originally a unit of freight volume, subsequently a unit of weight, varying according to the nature of the freight, equalling roughly between 1.8 and 2 metric tons.
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- ^ a b Rivara, Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha (1858). Viagem de Francisco Pyrard, de Laval, contendo a noticia de sua navegação ás Indias orientaes, ilhas de Maldiva, Maluco, e ao Brazil, e os differentes casos, que lhe aconteceram na mesma viagem nos dez annos que andou nestes paizes: (1601 a 1611) com a descripção exacta dos costumes, leis, usos, policia, e governo: do trato e commercio, que nelles ha: dos animaes, arvores, fructas, e outras singularidades, que alli se encontram: vertida do francez em portuguez, sobre a edição de 1679 Tomo I. Nova-Goa: Imprensa Nacional. pp. 211–212.
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- ^ Nugroho (2011), p. 271, 399–400, quoting Sejarah Melayu, 10.4: 77: "... maka bagindapun segera menyuruh berlengkap tiga ratus buah jung, lain dari pada itu kelulus, pelang, jongkong, tiada terbilang lagi." (then His Majesty immediately ordered to equip three hundred jong, other than that kelulus, pelang, jongkong in uncountable numbers.)
- ^ Leyden, John (1821). Malay Annals: Translated from the Malay language. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. p. 86: "The bitara immediately fitted out 300 junks together with the vessels calúlús, pelang, and jongkong in numbers beyond calculation, and embarked on board of them two Cati of Javans (200,000). Then having set sail, they arrived at Singhapura, and immediately engaged in battle."
- ^ Kheng, Cheah Boon; Ismail, Abdul Rahman Haji, eds. (1998). Sejarah Melayu The Malay Annals MS RAFFLES No. 18 Edisi Rumi Baru/New Romanised Edition. Academic Art & Printing Services Sdn. Bhd. pp. 118-119: "Setelah Betara Majapahit mendengar bunyi surat bendahari raja Singapura itu, maka baginda pun segera menyuruh berlengkap tiga ratus buah jong, lain daripada itu kelulus, pilang, jongkong, tiada terbilang lagi banyaknya; maka dua keti rakyat Jawa yang pergi itu; maka segala rakyat Jawa pun pergilah. Setelah datang ke Singapura, maka berparanglah dengan orang Singapura."
- ^ Krisnadi, I. G. (2016). Membaca Pikiran Kemaritiman Pramoedya Ananta Toer dalam Novel Arus Balik. Prosiding Konferensi Nasional Sejarah X Jilid IV Subtema IV. Jakarta, 7–10 November 2016. 1-27.
- ^ Setiawan, Hawe. Bujangga Manik dan Studi Sunda (PDF).
- ^ Kitab Bujangga Manik, verse 995–999: Parahu patina ageung, jong kapal buka dalapan, pa(n)jangna salawe deupa. [This boat was quite large, a jong of 8 depa wide, the length is 25 depa.]
- ^ Cho, Hung-guk (2009). Han'guk-gwa Dongnam Asia-ui Gyoryusa 한국과 동남아시아의 교류사 [History of Exchanges between Korea and Southeast Asia]. Seoul: Sonamu.
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- ^ R. H. Major, ed. (1857), "The travels of Niccolo Conti", India in the Fifteenth Century, Hakluyt Society, p. 27 Discussed in Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, p. 452
- ^ Text from Fra Mauro map, 10-A13, original Italian: "Circa hi ani del Signor 1420 una naue ouer çoncho de india discorse per una trauersa per el mar de india a la uia de le isole de hi homeni e de le done de fuora dal cauo de diab e tra le isole uerde e le oscuritade a la uia de ponente e de garbin per 40 çornade, non trouando mai altro che aiere e aqua, e per suo arbitrio iscorse 2000 mia e declinata la fortuna i fece suo retorno in çorni 70 fina al sopradito cauo de diab. E acostandose la naue a le riue per suo bisogno, i marinari uedeno uno ouo de uno oselo nominato chrocho, el qual ouo era de la grandeça de una bota d'anfora." [1]
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- ^ Lettera di Giovanni da Empoli, in Archivio Storico Italiano. Florence: G.P. Vieusseux. 1846.
- ^ Nugroho 2011, p. 304.
- ^ Birch 1875, p. 63.
- ^ Dion, 1970: p. 139.
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- ^ Birch, Walter de Gray (1875). The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India, translated from the Portuguese edition of 1774 Vol. III. London: The Hakluyt society.
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- ^ Winsted, R. O. (1935). "A History of Malaya". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 13 (1): iii-270.
- ^ Earle, T. F. (1990). Albuquerque: Caesar of the East: Selected texts by Alfonso de Albuquerque and his son. Oxford University Press. p. 287.
- ^ Liebner, 2016: 45.
- ^ 1513, Ferveiro 22. In Pato, Raymundo Antonio de Bulhão; Mendonça, Henrique Lopes de (1884). Cartas de Affonso de Albuquerque, Seguidas de Documentos que as Elucidam tomo III (pp. 51–65). Lisboa: Typographia da Academia Real das Sciencas.
- ^ Veth, Pieter Johannes (1896). Java. Geographisch, Ethnologisch, Historisch volume 1 Oude Geschiedenis. Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn.
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- ^ "Why are Junks called Junks?". yapahloy.tripod.com. Retrieved 2020-10-01.
- ^ Marsden, William (1783). The History of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the Government, Laws, Customs, and Manners of the Native Inhabitants. London: W. Marsden. hlm. 350-351.
- ^ Monteiro, Saturnino (2011). Portuguese Sea Battles, Volume III – From Brazil to Japan, 1539–1579.
- ^ a b A Collection of Voyages Undertaken by the Dutch East-India Company for the Improvement of Trade and Navigation. London: Printed for W. Freeman. 1703.
- ^ Schrieke, Bertram Johannes Otto (1955). Indonesian Sociological Studies: Selected Writings of B. Schrieke Part One. The Hague: W. van Hoeve.
- ^ Hoving, A.J. (2012). Nicolaes Witsen and Shipbuilding in the Dutch Golden Age. Texas A&M University Press. p. 145.
- ^ Schouten, Wouter (1676). Oost-Indische voyagie; vervattende veel voorname voorvallen en ongemeene oreemde geschiedenissen, bloedige zee- en landtgevechten tegen de Portugeesen en Makassaren. Amsterdam: J. Meurs.
- ^ Reid, Anthony (1992): 'The Rise and Fall of Sino-Javanese Shipping', in V.J.H. Houben, H.M.J. Maier, and Willem van der Molen (eds.), Looking in Odd Mirrors (Leiden: Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië), 177–211.
- ISBN 978-3-447-05492-8.
- ISBN 978-0-230-54685-1.
- ^ Schrieke, B.J.O. 1955–1957. Indonesian Sociological Studies. 2 vols.The Hague: Van Hoeve. Schulte Nordholt, H. 1980. "Macht, mensen en middelen: patronenvan dynamiek in de Balische politiek." M.A. thesis, Vrije Universiteit.
- ^ Lee, Kam Hing (1986): 'The Shipping Lists of Dutch Melaka: A Source for the Study of Coastal Trade and Shipping in the Malay Peninsula During the 17th and 18th Centuries', in Mohd. Y. Hashim (ed.), Ships and Sunken Treasure (Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Muzium Malaysia), 53–76.
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- ^ "I ship it! Historic Ship Harbour at RWS". S.E.A. Aquarium at Resorts World Sentosa. 2014-06-04. Archived from the original on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
External links
- Ancient Technology of Advanced Nations Indonesia Archived 2012-01-19 at the Wayback Machine
- The Jung Ship, Sea Explorers from Sundaland Archived 2010-11-30 at the Wayback Machine