Dog
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Dog | |
---|---|
Domesticated
| |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Family: | Canidae |
Genus: | Canis |
Species: | C. familiaris
|
Binomial name | |
Canis familiaris | |
Synonyms[3] | |
List
|
The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a
The dog has been
Taxonomy
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist
In 1999, a study of
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the
Evolution
Domestication
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf.[12] The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper.[13] Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated[14] because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.[1]
This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated
The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a
Breeds
-
Morphological variation in six dogs
-
Phenotypic variation in four dogs
Anatomy
Skeleton
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.[22][23] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.[22][23][24]
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton larger in size for larger types such as
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types.[23][25] The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.[23][25]
Senses
Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and magnetoreception. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in Earth's magnetic field.[26] Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north-south position in calm magnetic field conditions.[27]
Dogs' vision is dichromatic; the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays. They have difficulty differentiating between red and green. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12–25°, depending on the breed. Dogs' eyes of different breeds can have different retina configurations. The fovea centralis area of dogs' eyes, which is attached to a nerve fiber, is the most sensitive to photons.[28]
Coat
Dewclaw
A dog's dewclaw is the five digits in the dog's forelimb and hind legs. Dogs' forelimbs' dewclaws are attached by bone and ligament, while the dogs' hind legs' are attached by skin to the limb. Most dogs aren't born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the proximal phalanxes and distal phalanxes. Some publications thought that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.[31][32]
Tail
A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the vertebral column, which is made up of a string of 5 to 23 vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.[33] The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its anal gland's scent through the tail's position and movement.[34] Dogs can have a violet gland (or supracaudal gland) characterized by sebaceous glands on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a bald spot from hair loss, can be caused by Cushing's disease or an excess of sebum from androgens in the sebaceous glands.[35]
A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".[36][37]
Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail.[38] In some hunting dogs, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.[39]
Health
Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as
Several human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including
Lifespan
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is approximately 12.7 years.[50][51] Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study finding obese dogs have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight.[50]
Reproduction
In domestic dogs,
Neutering
Neutering reduces problems caused by
Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to mate them between close relatives (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).[67] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.[68] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[69]
In a study of seven dog breeds (the
Behavior
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to
Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.
Dogs have a natural instinct called prey drive (the term is chiefly used to describe training dogs' habits); the behaviour can be influenced by the dogs' breeds. Dogs' instincts can consider objects or other animals to be their prey or to be their valuables; some dogs have killed vermin.[87] Puppies or dogs sometimes bury food underground. A study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches; the study suggested that it was likely due to a 'difference in motivation' between wolves and dogs.[88] Some puppies and dogs engage in coprophagy out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, who do it to keep their dens free of intestinal parasites.[89]
Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a chlorinated swimming pool.[90] A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and improvement of the hip osteoarthritis joint.[91]
Nursing
The female dog may produce colostrum 1–7 days before giving birth, lasting for around three months.[92][93] Colostrum peak production was around 3 weeks postpartum and increased with litter size.[93] The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during child contractions.[94] In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy, nesting behaviour may occur.[95] Puppies are born with a protective fetal membrane that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.[96][97] While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,[98] most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.[99] A female dog may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.[100]
Intelligence
Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of
Communication
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Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans, and translate the information that dogs are transmitting.[107]: xii Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,[108][109] vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs' scent marks their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.[110][111] Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.[112] Aroused dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher cortisol levels.[113] Between 3 and 8 weeks of age, dogs tend to focus on other dogs for social interaction, and between 5 and 12 weeks of age, they shift their focus to people.[114] Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort.
Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. As dogs, with their acute sense of hearing, they rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive barking patterns that convey different messages. A study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the temporal pole, similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the valence of vocalization.[115][116][117] A study of caudate responses shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.[118]
Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human environment.[119][120] In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million[121] and 987 million.[122] About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries.[123] In the developing world, it is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs.[124] Most of these dogs live as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%), or respond aggressively (11%).[125]
Competitors and predators
Feral and
Diet
Dogs have been described as omnivores.[5][132][133] Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.[4] Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high-starch diet.[134] However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine, and they cannot produce vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh. Of the twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms (including selenocysteine), dogs cannot synthesize ten: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.[135][136][137] Like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.[138]
Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog has notable exceptions of presence in:
- The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of dingos on that continent
- The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar
- The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, an already extinct different canid species
- Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs or where the dogs died out after original settlement, notably the Marquesas,[144] Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island,[144] the Chatham Islands[145] and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).[146]
Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs. Starting practice in December 1993, dogs were later outlawed by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty international agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections.[147]
Dogs shall not be introduced onto land, ice shelves or sea ice.
— Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1991 in Madrid, amended version of Annex II, Article 4 (number two)
Roles with humans
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, who would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations,[148] probably also for early human hunter-gatherers.
Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[149][150]
Pets
The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[151] Pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.[151] In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.[152][page needed][153][page needed][154] Within the second half of the 20th century, the first dogs' social status major shift has been "commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior.[154] The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.[154]
A vast range of commodity forms aim to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.
According to statistics published by the
Workers
In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for
Various kinds of
Shows
There are breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions, for dogs to participate in with their guardians. In dog shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard.[170] Weight pulling, a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting doping and for its risk of injury.[171]
Food
Dog meat is consumed in some
Eating dog meat is a social taboo in most parts of the world; debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.[185] The Sui emperors attempted to outlaw dog meat consumption, with the Tang dynasty partially prohibiting dog meat consumption at events.[186] Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.[187][188][189][190] In some countries, saling or slaughtering dogs for human consumption is prohibited, though some still consume it in modern times.
In Korea
The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Some followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or the body's 'vital energy'. Dogs are not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.[191]
The primary dog breed raised for meat in South Korea is the Nureongi, an unrecognized breed by international body.[192] In 2018, the South Korean government passed a bill for restaurants that sell dog meat to stop doing so during the year's Winter Olympics.[193] On 9 January 2024, the South Korean parliament passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat, to take effect in three years.[194]
Health risks
In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6% in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant vector.[195] Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate.[196] Sharp claws can lacerate flesh, which can lead to serious infections.[197] In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[198] It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated road accidents involving injuries are more commonly involving two-wheeled vehicles.[199]
Health benefits
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.[204] Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being 'poorly controlled'.[205][206] It states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that pet dog or cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.[207] People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term.[208] Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who do not own dogs.[209] Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog ownership and increased adult physical activity levels.[210]
A 2005 paper states, "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[204] In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.[208]
The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety,[211] and are exposed to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the hygiene hypothesis. Other benefits include dogs as social support.[212] One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.[213] In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.[214]
Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.[215] Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with Alzheimer's disease.[216] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.[217]
Cultural importance
Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, alertness, and love.[218] In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian period, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine,[219] and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her.[219] In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection.[219] In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[220]
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.
In
Terminology
- Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.[232]
- Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).[233]
- Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.[234]
- Sire – the male parent of a litter.[234]
- Dam – the female parent of a litter.[234]
- Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.[234]
- Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth.[234]
- Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam.[234]
See also
- Cat–dog relationship
- Cynanthropy
- Dognapping
- Domesticated silver fox
- Lists of dogs
- List of individual dogs
- List of oldest dogs
References
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- ^ Smith 2015, pp. xi–24 Chapter 1 – Bradley Smith
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External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Travel information from Wikivoyage
- Taxa from Wikispecies
- Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography for Canis lupus familiaris
- Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation
- Dogs in the Ancient World, an article on the history of dogs
- View the dog genome Archived 13 December 2013 at the Ensembl
- Genome of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4), via UCSC Genome Browser
- Data of the genome of Canis lupus familiaris, via NCBI
- Data of the genome assembly of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4), via NCBI
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