Dog

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Dog
Temporal range: 0.0142–0 
Ma
↓
 Late Pleistocene to present[1]
Domesticated
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species:
C. familiaris
Binomial name
Canis familiaris
Synonyms[3]
List
  • C. aegyptius Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. alco C. E. H. Smith, 1839,
  • C. americanus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. anglicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. antarcticus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. aprinus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. aquaticus Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. aquatilis Gmelin, 1792
  • C. avicularis Gmelin, 1792
  • C. borealis C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. brevipilis Gmelin, 1792
  • C. cursorius Gmelin, 1792
  • C. domesticus Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. extrarius Gmelin, 1792
  • C. ferus C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. fricator Gmelin, 1792
  • C. fricatrix Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. fuillus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. gallicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. glaucus C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. graius Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. grajus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. hagenbecki Krumbiegel, 1950
  • C. haitensis C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. hibernicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. hirsutus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. hybridus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. islandicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. italicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. laniarius Gmelin, 1792
  • C. leoninus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. leporarius C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. lupus familiaris Linnaeus,1758
  • C. major Gmelin, 1792
  • C. mastinus Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. melitacus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. melitaeus Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. minor Gmelin, 1792
  • C. molossus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. mustelinus Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. obesus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. orientalis Gmelin, 1792
  • C. pacificus C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. plancus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. pomeranus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. sagaces C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. sanguinarius C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. sagax Linnaeus, 1758
  • C. scoticus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. sibiricus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. suillus C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. terraenovae C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. terrarius C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. turcicus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. urcani C. E. H. Smith, 1839
  • C. variegatus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. venaticus Gmelin, 1792
  • C. vertegus Gmelin, 1792

The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a

domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from extinct gray wolves, and the gray wolf is the dog's closest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans. Experts estimate that hunter-gatherers domesticated dogs more than 15,000 years ago, which was before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.[4]

The dog has been

aiding disabled people. Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study. This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend
".

Taxonomy

Further information: Canis lupus dingo § Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog

In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist

canid.[7]

In 1999, a study of

junior synonym) for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision.[3] Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the "domestic dog" clade[9] with some debating it.[10]

In 2019, a workshop hosted by the

feral Canis familiaris and therefore did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[11]

Evolution

Main article: Evolution of the wolf
Location of a dog's carnassials; the inside of the 4th upper premolar aligns with the outside of the 1st lower molar, working like scissor blades.

Domestication

Main article: Domestication of the dog

The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf.[12] The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper.[13] Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated[14] because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.[1]

This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated

DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage.[18][17]

The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a

ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia,[12] with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas.[12]

Breeds

Main article: Dog breed
Further information:
artificial selection by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour.[16] Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting,[16] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression.[16] Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world.[20] An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.[17]

Anatomy

Main article: Dog anatomy

Skeleton

A lateral view of a dog skeleton

All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.[22][23] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.[22][23][24]

Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton larger in size for larger types such as

corgis.[23] Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as three.[22]

The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types.[23][25] The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.[23][25]

Senses

Further information: Dog anatomy § Senses

Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and magnetoreception. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in Earth's magnetic field.[26] Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north-south position in calm magnetic field conditions.[27]

Dogs' vision is dichromatic; the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays. They have difficulty differentiating between red and green. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12–25°, depending on the breed. Dogs' eyes of different breeds can have different retina configurations. The fovea centralis area of dogs' eyes, which is attached to a nerve fiber, is the most sensitive to photons.[28]

Coat

Main article:
down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.[29] Premature graying can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.[30]

Dewclaw

A dog's dewclaw is the five digits in the dog's forelimb and hind legs. Dogs' forelimbs' dewclaws are attached by bone and ligament, while the dogs' hind legs' are attached by skin to the limb. Most dogs aren't born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the proximal phalanxes and distal phalanxes. Some publications thought that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.[31][32]

Tail

A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the vertebral column, which is made up of a string of 5 to 23 vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.[33] The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its anal gland's scent through the tail's position and movement.[34] Dogs can have a violet gland (or supracaudal gland) characterized by sebaceous glands on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a bald spot from hair loss, can be caused by Cushing's disease or an excess of sebum from androgens in the sebaceous glands.[35]

A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".[36][37]

Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail.[38] In some hunting dogs, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.[39]

A black Standard Schnauzer with a docked tail

Health

Main article: Dog health

Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as

tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms that can live in their hearts.[40]

Several human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including

macadamia nuts, and xylitol.[41] The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs. Signs of ingestion can include copious vomiting (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. The symptoms of hydrocarbon mixture indigestion can be abdominal pain, aspiration pneumonia, oral ulcers, vomiting, or death.[42][43] The most common deaths among dogs were neoplasia and heart disease, followed by toxicosis and gastrointestinal disease.[44][45][46] A 20-year-record study found that respiratory disease was the most common cause of death in Bulldogs.[47] Puppies were more likely to die from infection or congenital disease.[48] Dogs can also have some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, resembling human diabetes, is the type of diabetes seen most often in dogs.[49] Their pathology is similar to that of humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes. The genes involved in canine obsessive-compulsive disorders led to the detection of four genes in humans' related pathways.[20]

Lifespan

Further information: Aging in dogs

The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is approximately 12.7 years.[50][51] Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study finding obese dogs have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight.[50]

Reproduction

Main article: Canine reproduction
Two dogs tied after mating

In domestic dogs,

fertilization,[5][57] with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies.[58]

Neutering

dogs' overpopulation in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.[59] According to the Humane Society of the United States, three to four million dogs and cats are euthanized each year.[60] Many more are confined to cages in shelters. Spaying or castrating dogs is considered a major factor in keeping overpopulation down.[61]

Neutering reduces problems caused by

diabetes mellitus in either sex.[66]

Inbreeding depression

A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to mate them between close relatives (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).[67] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.[68] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[69]

In a study of seven dog breeds (the

Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.[72]

Behavior

Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog behavior § Behavior compared with other canids

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to

great apes, are parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.[75]

Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.

Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving ability.[81] In a 2023 study of 58 dogs, some dogs classified as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like (ADHD-like) showed lower serotonin and dopamine concentrations.[82] A similar study claims that hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.[83] A dog can become aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or protecting an item it considers valuable.[84] Acute stress reactions from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into chronic stress.[85] Police dogs with PTSD can often refuse to work.[86]

Dogs have a natural instinct called prey drive (the term is chiefly used to describe training dogs' habits); the behaviour can be influenced by the dogs' breeds. Dogs' instincts can consider objects or other animals to be their prey or to be their valuables; some dogs have killed vermin.[87] Puppies or dogs sometimes bury food underground. A study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches; the study suggested that it was likely due to a 'difference in motivation' between wolves and dogs.[88] Some puppies and dogs engage in coprophagy out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, who do it to keep their dens free of intestinal parasites.[89]

Dog swimming over to catch a ball

Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a chlorinated swimming pool.[90] A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and improvement of the hip osteoarthritis joint.[91]

Nursing

A female dog is nursing her newborn puppies.

The female dog may produce colostrum 1–7 days before giving birth, lasting for around three months.[92][93] Colostrum peak production was around 3 weeks postpartum and increased with litter size.[93] The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during child contractions.[94] In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy, nesting behaviour may occur.[95] Puppies are born with a protective fetal membrane that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.[96][97] While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,[98] most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.[99] A female dog may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.[100]

Intelligence

Main article: Dog intelligence

Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by

Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items after four weeks of the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented that he had learned the names and could associate them by verbal command with over 1,000 words.[101]

One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of

chimpanzees, or cats.[102] One study of 18 household dogs found that the dogs could not distinguish food bowls at specific locations without distinguishing cues; the study stated that this indicates a lack of spatial memory.[103] Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.[104] Another experimental study showed evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.[105] Another study showed that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at humans, while socialized wolves do not.[106]

Communication

Main article: Dog communication
Dog sounds
A dog making noises and barking
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans, and translate the information that dogs are transmitting.[107]: xii  Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,[108][109] vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs' scent marks their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.[110][111] Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.[112] Aroused dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher cortisol levels.[113] Between 3 and 8 weeks of age, dogs tend to focus on other dogs for social interaction, and between 5 and 12 weeks of age, they shift their focus to people.[114] Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort.

Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. As dogs, with their acute sense of hearing, they rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive barking patterns that convey different messages. A study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the temporal pole, similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the valence of vocalization.[115][116][117] A study of caudate responses shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.[118]

Ecology

Population

The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human environment.[119][120] In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million[121] and 987 million.[122] About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries.[123] In the developing world, it is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs.[124] Most of these dogs live as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%), or respond aggressively (11%).[125]

Competitors and predators

Feral and

free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans.[119] Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage when facing large dog groups.[126][127] In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[128] Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.[126]

Amur River region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way.[130] Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.[131]

Diet

See also: Dog food
A Golden Retriever gnawing on a pig's foot

Dogs have been described as omnivores.[5][132][133] Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.[4] Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high-starch diet.[134] However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine, and they cannot produce vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh. Of the twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms (including selenocysteine), dogs cannot synthesize ten: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.[135][136][137] Like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.[138]

Range

As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog has notable exceptions of presence in:

Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs. Starting practice in December 1993, dogs were later outlawed by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty international agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections.[147]

Dogs shall not be introduced onto land, ice shelves or sea ice.

— Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1991 in Madrid, amended version of Annex II, Article 4 (number two)

Roles with humans

Main article: Human–canine bond

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, who would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations,[148] probably also for early human hunter-gatherers.

Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[149][150]

Pets

A Siberian Husky with a human as companionship

The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[151] Pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.[151] In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.[152][page needed][153][page needed][154] Within the second half of the 20th century, the first dogs' social status major shift has been "commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior.[154] The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.[154]

A vast range of commodity forms aim to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.

dog yoga, have increased in participation by human family members.[155]

According to statistics published by the

American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs.[160] The source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% own two dogs, and nearly 9% own more than two dogs. The data also shows an equal number of male and female pet dogs, and less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters.[161]

Workers

In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for

sheepdogs); hunting; rodent control (such as terriers); search and rescue dogs;[162] detection dogs (such as those trained to detect illicit drugs or chemical weapons);[163][164] homeguard dogs; police dogs (K-9); welfare-purpose dogs; dogs who assist fishermen retrieve their nets; and dogs that pull loads (such as sled dogs).[5] In 1957, the dog Laika became one of the first animals to be launched into Earth orbit aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight from overheating.[165][166]

Various kinds of

psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities.[167][168] A study of 29 dogs reported that 9 dogs owned by people with epilepsy were reported to exhibit attention-getting behavior to their handler 30 seconds to 45 minutes prior to an impending seizure; there was no significant correlation between the patients' demographics, health, or attitude towards their pets.[169]

Shows

See also: Dog show

There are breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions, for dogs to participate in with their guardians. In dog shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard.[170] Weight pulling, a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting doping and for its risk of injury.[171]

Food

Main article: Dog meat

Dog meat is consumed in some

East Asian countries, including China,[149] Vietnam,[150] Korea,[172] Indonesia,[173] and the Philippines,[174] which date back to antiquity.[175] It is estimated that 30 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. Han Chinese traditionally ate dog meat.[176] China is the world's largest consumer of dogs, with an estimated 10 to 20 million dogs killed every year for human consumption, derived from extrapolating industry reports on meat tonnage.[177] Switzerland, Polynesia, and pre-Columbian Mexico also consumed dog meat in their histories.[178][179][180] In some parts of Poland[181][182] and Central Asia,[183][184]
dog fat is reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs.

Eating dog meat is a social taboo in most parts of the world; debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.[185] The Sui emperors attempted to outlaw dog meat consumption, with the Tang dynasty partially prohibiting dog meat consumption at events.[186] Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.[187][188][189][190] In some countries, saling or slaughtering dogs for human consumption is prohibited, though some still consume it in modern times.

In Korea

Main article: Dog meat consumption in South Korea

The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Some followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or the body's 'vital energy'. Dogs are not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.[191]

The primary dog breed raised for meat in South Korea is the Nureongi, an unrecognized breed by international body.[192] In 2018, the South Korean government passed a bill for restaurants that sell dog meat to stop doing so during the year's Winter Olympics.[193] On 9 January 2024, the South Korean parliament passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat, to take effect in three years.[194]

Health risks

Further information:
Dog bite prevention

In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6% in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant vector.[195] Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate.[196] Sharp claws can lacerate flesh, which can lead to serious infections.[197] In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[198] It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated road accidents involving injuries are more commonly involving two-wheeled vehicles.[199]

roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.[200] Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[201] Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[202][203]

Health benefits

Walking a dog

The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.[204] Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being 'poorly controlled'.[205][206] It states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that pet dog or cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.[207] People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term.[208] Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who do not own dogs.[209] Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog ownership and increased adult physical activity levels.[210]

A 2005 paper states, "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[204] In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.[208]

The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety,[211] and are exposed to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the hygiene hypothesis. Other benefits include dogs as social support.[212] One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.[213] In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.[214]

Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.[215] Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with Alzheimer's disease.[216] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.[217]

Cultural importance

Main articles: Cultural depictions of dogs and Dogs in religion
Further information: List of fictional dogs
third circle of hell, depicted by William Blake

Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, alertness, and love.[218] In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian period, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine,[219] and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her.[219] In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection.[219] In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[220]

In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.

Proto-Indo-European religion.[221][222] In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades.[220] Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess Hecate.[223] In Norse mythology, a dog called Garmr guards Hel, a realm of the dead.[220] In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.[220] In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn.[220] In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watchdogs named Shyama and Sharvara who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka.[224] A black dog is also considered to be the vahana (vehicle) of Bhairava (an incarnation of Shiva).[225]

In

Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.[228][229] The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean,[220] although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet."[230] The Sunni Maliki School jurists disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean.[231]

Terminology

See also

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External links
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