Gender inequality in Bangladesh
Bangladesh has achieved significant advancements in political empowerment, ranking seventh globally with a commendable gender parity rate of 55.2%. Over the past 50 years, the country has witnessed a woman serving as head of state for an impressive duration of 29.3 years, which stands as the longest period in the world.[3] Gender parity in school enrollment has seen significant improvement. Bangladesh has also put in place regulations to protect women's rights and privileges. As access to education for women increases, the momentum to boost women's participation in the labor force continues to grow.[4] Bangladesh has experienced a substantial transformation, marked by the gradual expansion of opportunities for women over the past few decades. Multiple factors have converged to bring about transformative advancements in women's empowerment within the nation.[5]
Gender
Bangladesh is one of those countries of the world where the number of men exceeds the number of women. Ninety- percent of the population adheres to Islam.[6][7] Veiling remains a domain of contestation in regards to whether it serves as a vehicle of empowerment or discrimination.[8] While seen in Western discourse as restrictive of women's rights, some claim that burkas allow for better freedom of movement in Bangladesh.[9] Despite the changes that have come with the demand for women in the export industry, women are generally unseen outside the domestic sphere. This is especially true in rural Bangladesh. While labour force increase has accounted for higher percentages for females than males, terms of equality are measured in various areas beyond employment. Their status and position is also measured in terms of education, income, assets, health, and the role they play in the family and in society. These characteristics are representative of the amount of political power and social prestige a woman is accorded and thus the extent to which she can influence decision-making within the home and in the community.[7]
Legal status
Although the
In recent years, several laws have been put in place to reduce the amount of violence against women and girls. Early in 2011, a Division Bench of the High Court Division of the Supreme Court ordered every incident of
The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
In 1979, the
On 6 November 1984, Bangladesh ratified CEDAW with reservations on Articles 2, 13.1[a], 16.1[c], and [f] due to conflicts with Sharia law of Islam.[13][14] Since ratification, Bangladesh has undergone milestone changes in gender equality. In 2009, a public interest litigation case brought by the Bangladesh National Women's Lawyers Association challenged the High Court to step in and take action as there was no national law against sexual harassment. CEDAW became the centre of the Court's deliberations, and particular interest in CEDAW's Article 11 on equality in employment and the CEDAW Committee's General Recommendation no. 19 on violence against women was given. Based on these principles, the Court issued sexual harassment guidelines for the whole country, which will remain when legislation is passed.[15] Bangladesh has also used CEDAW to help attain gender parity in primary school enrollment and has as a goal for 2015, to eliminate all gender disparities in secondary education.[16]
Health
In 2011, 24% of births were attended by a professional health physician.
The health situation for urban women is worse than that for rural women, especially those living in slums. The urban population living in the slum areas do not have adequate sanitation, water and health facilities which results in poor health.[7]
Education
In 2011, the population with at least a secondary education was 30.8% for women and 39.3% for men.
Employment
Labor force participation for females has been driven primarily by the growth of approved export industry jobs in textiles and the spread of micro financing operations by NGOs including the Grameen Bank. Women's participation in high skill, managerial, and government executive positions have increased only to a limited extent.[2] Income inequalities between women and men are still existent in Bangladesh. The 2012 Human Development Report shows that in the small business sector, for every dollar earned by a male, women make 12 cents in comparison.[18] Over time, however, gender earning gaps have decreased in favour of women.[2]
Microcredit
Since the 1970s,
Bangladeshi women are primarily who these institutions target. This relies upon observations that patriarchy is deeply embedded in the culture, thus the spotlight is on empowering women who are vulnerable and powerless. Research also suggests that loans given to women tend to more often benefit the whole family than do loans to men.[19]
Having been adopted in one of the U.N.'s Millennium Development Goals, micro credit initiatives have been seen as beneficial for alleviating poverty. While it has been shown to do this, scholars also indicate that in many cases, micro credit loans can worsen poverty. As observed in the context of India's microcredit crisis of 2010, client poaching occurs where the poorest of individuals are given loans, even if they have little to no prospects of repayment.[21] Quick repayment requirements on loans often don't give women enough time to generate the income quickly enough through their business expenditures. Financial setbacks in the initial stages of business, use of loan money for emergencies and/or day-to-day consumption can result in large indebtedness and conditions of poverty worse than before.[19] Thus, collateral takes the form as scholar Lamia Karim coins, the economy of shame. In Bangladesh, women are the traditional custodians of honour. Deferral on these loans puts the honour of the family and the security of the woman at risk, thus making shame and humiliation collateral for micro credit institutions.[22]
Another disadvantage to women in micro finance is credit control. While intended for women, husbands in the family often end up being the sole beneficiaries of the capital. The idea that "since my wife belongs to me, than so does the money" is largely the reason for this.[22]
Garment industry
The garment sector in Bangladesh accounts for 77% of total exports, as well as being the country's largest industry.[23] Low wages and poor commitment to Bangladesh's labour laws have provided the basis for extremely competitive labour costs.[24] Unmarried women from rural areas are the preferred garment factory workers, and correspondingly make up the majority of the labour force. Women are preferred over men primarily because its deemed a) women are more patient and nimble b) women are more controllable than men c) women are less mobile and less likely to join a trade union d) women can do better in sewing because it coincides with domestic jobs.[25]
Garment workers experience several violations of worker rights which are supposedly protected in Bangladesh's labour codes. Among these violations are long working hours, illegal pay deductions, lack of safe and sanitary working conditions and denial of freedom to associate and bargain collectively. Harassment and abuse against workers is also extremely prevalent in Bangladesh.[24]
Working conditions are different for women than men because they work different jobs. Generally, women suffer the worst working conditions because they hold low skill jobs where occupational hazards are greater. Health is adversely affected by long working hours and poor ventilation. Garment workers also often suffer from the absence of a lunchroom and clean drinking water.[25] Safety and fire hazards are issues as well; in April 2013, a factory collapse on the outskirts of Dhaka killed 1,021 people.[26]
Female workers deal with other issues male workers don't need to. Female garment workers can face an uncongenial work environment, unsafe transportation, and housing. These factors generally don't affect male workers. Sexual harassment and violence in the workplace are also common. In 1998, 161 rape cases in and around garment factories were reported by the Department of Metropolitan Police in Dhaka.[25]
Despite these negative aspects, the garment industry to many Bangladeshi women represents one of few options to work with dignity. The industry allows for women, in many cases, to become the bread winners for their families as well as having elevation in social status. In the International People's Health Assembly held in Bangladesh in 2000, voices of women spoke out against the threat of imposing international labour standards threatening their garment industry jobs.[27]
Political participation
Since the 1990s, women have become increasingly influential in the political arena. Despite the barriers that come with patriarchal rules and the purdah, the system of quotas has ensured women's representation in the national parliament and local governments. Since 1991, all the prime minister elections have been won by two female prime ministers, Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia. Elections in December 2008 resulted in the election of Hasina, who is currently serving.
Despite these successes, there remain several factors that limit women's political participation. The political culture based on vengeance, distrust and corruption has ideological, political, religious and institutional dimensions that are rooted in the whole of society. The result is an institutionalisation of violence as a means of political expression. In 2007, 192 cases of women being attacked with acid were registered. Intimidation by conservative parties and religious and socio-cultural norms are used to cut down and intimidate women, limiting their rights to vote. High rates of illiteracy have also acted as limiting factors.[28]
Inequality and violence against women
Cultural and traditional factors heavily influence how women are treated and regarded in Bangladesh. Once married, women, adolescents, and girls become property of the husbands family. This limits opportunities for schooling, thus perpetuating dependence and disempowerment.[11] Domestic violence and discrimination are difficult to measure, acts of violence can be accounted for in court proceedings and police reports. Violence in Bangladesh ranges from acid throwing, physical and psychological torture, sexual harassment, sexual assault, rape, related violence, trafficking, forced prostitution, coerced suicide and murder.[10]
Rape
Rape is one of the most brutal forms of violence against women in Bangladesh, and its on the rise. Data from the BNWLA Resource centre shows that rape cases doubled from 564 in 2001 to 1043 in 2004.[10] Gang rape has become increasingly prevalent as well.
Domestic violence
Domestic violence incidents in Bangladesh are widespread and fairly common, affecting women across all forms of economic strata. While largely under-reported due to social stigma and fear, data suggests an increase in reported cases of abuse. In 2001, 530
Acid violence
References
- ^ a b c "- Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
- ^ League, Bangladesh Awami. "Bangladesh leading in South Asia in gender parity: WEF report". albd.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ "Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment | Bangladesh". U.S. Agency for International Development. 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
- ^ "Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment | Bangladesh". U.S. Agency for International Development. 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
- ^ "Bangladeshi Culture - Religion". Cultural Atlas. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
- ^ a b c d United Nations, CEDAW combined 3rd and 4th periodic reports, 1997
- .
- S2CID 5912476.
- ^ a b c d e Farouk, Sharmeen A., Violence against women : A statistical overview, challenges and gaps in data collection and methodology and approaches for overcoming them, Division for the Advancement of Women, United Nations, 14 April 2005 [1] Archived 13 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d Westhof, Dirk. "A perspective of gender inequality in Bangladesh. Analysis, UNICEF, 201 [2] Archived 28 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ United Nations, "Short History of CEDAW Convention", UN Women
- ^ Asian Women's Resource Exchange, "CEDAW and Women: The Bangladesh experience", WPRN Newsletter, June 1998
- ^ Partners for Law and Development, "Bangladesh Ratification Status", CEDAW South Asia, 2014
- ^ United Nations, "CEDAW Success Stories", 30 Years United Nations CEDAW, 2009
- ^ CEDAW 2014, "Frequently Asked Questions", United Nations, 2009
- ^ Revenga, Ana; Shettythe, Sudir, The World Bank, Human Development Report, 2012 [3] Archived 28 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ S2CID 154952803.
- ^ Zaham, H. (2005) 'The Economics and Governance of Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in Bangladesh', Consultation Draft, Washington, DC: World Bank
- S2CID 84343066.
- ^ S2CID 144878082.
- ^ "Textiles on the WTO website", WTO Secretariat, from the original on 3 November 2008, Retrieved 10 April 2014
- ^ doi:10.1002/jid.1534.
- ^ a b c Paul-Majumder, Pratima; Anwara, Begum; The Gender Imbalances in the Export Oriented Garment Industry in Bangladesh; Policy Research Report on Gender development, Working Paper Series, No. 12, The World Bank, June 200
- ^ "Bangladesh factory collapse toll passes 1,000". Asia: BBC News. 10 May 1013. Archived from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- S2CID 17533079.
- ^ Labani, Sepideh; Zabaleta Kaehler, Carla; De Dios Ruiz, Paula; Regional Gender Programme in South-East Asia-Stage II, "Gender analysis of women's political participation in 7 South-East Asian countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, East Timor, and Vietnam, 2008–2009 [4] Archived 29 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine