Fyodor Dostoevsky
Fyodor Dostoevsky | |
---|---|
Native name | Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский |
Born | Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky 11 November 1821 Moscow, Russian Empire |
Died | 9 February 1881 Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire | (aged 59)
Resting place | Tikhvin Cemetery, Saint Petersburg |
Occupation |
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Education | Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute |
Period | Modern (19th century) |
Genres | |
Subjects | List |
Literary movement | Realism, naturalism |
Years active | 1844–1880 |
Notable works |
|
Spouse | Maria Dmitriyevna Isaeva
(m. 1857; died 1864)Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina (m. 1867) |
Children | 4, including Lyubov Dostoevskaya |
Signature | |
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky[a] (UK: /ˌdɒstɔɪˈɛfski/,[1] US: /ˌdɒstəˈjɛfski, ˌdʌs-/;[2] Russian: Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский[b], tr. Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevskiy, IPA: [ˈfʲɵdər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪdʑ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj] ⓘ; 11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881[3][c]), sometimes transliterated as Dostoyevsky, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist. Numerous literary critics regard him as one of the greatest novelists in all of world literature, as many of his works are considered highly influential masterpieces.[4][page needed]
Dostoevsky's literary works explore the human condition in the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmospheres of 19th-century Russia, and engage with a variety of philosophical and religious themes. His most acclaimed novels include Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). His 1864 novella Notes from Underground is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature.[5]
Born in Moscow in 1821, Dostoevsky was introduced to literature at an early age through
Dostoevsky's
Ancestry
Dostoevsky's paternal ancestors were part of a
Dostoevsky's immediate ancestors on his mother's side were merchants; the male line on his father's side were priests.[7][8]
In 1809, the 20-year-old Mikhail Dostoevsky enrolled in Moscow's Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. From there he was assigned to a Moscow hospital, where he served as military doctor, and in 1818 he was appointed a senior physician. In 1819 he married Maria Nechayeva. The following year, he took up a post at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor. In 1828, when his two sons, Mikhail and Fyodor, were eight and seven respectively, he was promoted to collegiate assessor, a position which raised his legal status to that of the nobility and enabled him to acquire a small estate in Darovoye, a town about 150 km (100 miles) from Moscow, where the family usually spent the summers.[9] Dostoevsky's parents subsequently had six more children: Varvara (1822–1892), Andrei (1825–1897), Lyubov (born and died 1829), Vera (1829–1896), Nikolai (1831–1883) and Aleksandra (1835–1889).[10][7][8] Both of his parents may have had Tatar ancestry as well.[11][12]
Childhood (1821–1836)
Fyodor Dostoevsky, born on 11 November [O.S. 30 October] 1821 in Moscow, was the second child of Dr. Mikhail Dostoevsky and Maria Dostoevskaya (born Nechayeva). He was raised in the family home in the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor, which was in a lower class district on the edges of Moscow.[13] Dostoevsky encountered the patients, who were at the lower end of the Russian social scale, when playing in the hospital gardens.[14]
Dostoevsky was introduced to literature at an early age. From the age of three, he had read heroic sagas, fairy tales and legends by his nanny, Alena Frolovna, an especially influential figure in his upbringing and his love for fictional stories.[15] When he was four, his mother used the Bible to teach him to read and write. His parents introduced him to a wide range of literature, including Russian writers Karamzin, Pushkin and Derzhavin; Gothic fiction such as the works from writer Ann Radcliffe; romantic works by Schiller and Goethe; heroic tales by Miguel de Cervantes and Walter Scott; and Homer's epics.[16][17] Dostoevsky was greatly influenced by the work of Nikolai Gogol.[18] Although his father's approach to education has been described as strict and harsh,[19] Dostoevsky himself reported that his imagination was brought alive by nightly readings by his parents.[14]
Some of his childhood experiences found their way into his writings. When a nine-year-old girl had been raped by a drunk, he was asked to fetch his father to attend to her. The incident haunted him, and the theme of the desire of a mature man for a young girl appears in The Devils, The Brothers Karamazov, Crime and Punishment, and other writings.[20] An incident involving a family servant, or serf, in the estate in Darovoye, is described in "The Peasant Marey": when the young Dostoevsky imagines hearing a wolf in the forest, Marey, who is working nearby, comforts him.[21]
Although Dostoevsky had a delicate physical constitution, his parents described him as hot-headed, stubborn, and cheeky.
Youth (1836–1843)
On 27 September 1837, Dostoevsky's mother died of
Dostoevsky disliked the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in science, mathematics, and military engineering and his preference for drawing and architecture. As his friend
Signs of Dostoevsky's
On 12 August 1843 Dostoevsky took a job as a lieutenant engineer and lived with Adolph Totleben in an apartment owned by Dr. Rizenkampf, a friend of Mikhail. Rizenkampf characterised him as "no less good-natured and no less courteous than his brother, but when not in a good mood he often looked at everything through dark glasses, became vexed, forgot good manners, and sometimes was carried away to the point of abusiveness and loss of self-awareness".[34] Dostoevsky's first completed literary work, a translation of Honoré de Balzac's novel Eugénie Grandet, was published in June and July 1843 in the 6th and 7th volumes of the journal Repertoire and Pantheon,[35][36] followed by several other translations. None were successful, and his financial difficulties led him to write a novel.[37][29]
Career
Early career (1844–1849)
Dostoevsky completed his first novel, Poor Folk, in May 1845. His friend Dmitry Grigorovich, with whom he was sharing an apartment at the time, took the manuscript to the poet Nikolay Nekrasov, who in turn showed it to the renowned and influential literary critic Vissarion Belinsky. Belinsky described it as Russia's first "social novel".[38] Poor Folk was released on 15 January 1846 in the St Petersburg Collection almanac and became a commercial success.[39][40]
Dostoevsky felt that his military career would endanger his now flourishing literary career, so he wrote a letter asking to resign his post. Shortly thereafter, he wrote his second novel,
After The Double received negative reviews (including a particularly scathing one from Belinsky) Dostoevsky's health declined and his seizures became more frequent, but he continued writing. From 1846 to 1848 he published several short stories in the magazine Notes of the Fatherland, including "
In 1849, the first parts of
Siberian exile (1849–1854)
The members of the Petrashevsky Circle were denounced to
The case was discussed for four months by an investigative commission headed by the Tsar, with Adjutant General
Dostoevsky served four years of exile with hard labour at a katorga prison camp in Omsk, Siberia, followed by a term of compulsory military service. After a fourteen-day sleigh ride, the prisoners reached Tobolsk, a prisoner way station. Despite the circumstances, Dostoevsky consoled the other prisoners, such as the Petrashevist Ivan Yastrzhembsky, who was surprised by Dostoevsky's kindness and eventually abandoned his decision to kill himself. In Tobolsk, the members received food and clothes from the Decembrist women, as well as several copies of the New Testament with a ten-ruble banknote inside each copy. Eleven days later, Dostoevsky reached Omsk[51][53] together with just one other member of the Petrashevsky Circle, the writer Sergei Durov.[54] Dostoevsky described his barracks:
In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall ... We were packed like herrings in a barrel ... There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs ... Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel ...
missing long citation]
Classified as "one of the most dangerous convicts", Dostoevsky had his hands and feet shackled until his release. He was only permitted to read his New Testament Bible. In addition to his seizures, he had
Release from prison and first marriage (1854–1866)
After his release on 14 February 1854, Dostoevsky asked Mikhail to help him financially and to send him books by
In Semipalatinsk, Dostoevsky tutored several schoolchildren and came into contact with upper-class families, including that of Lieutenant-Colonel Belikhov, who used to invite him to read passages from newspapers and magazines. During a visit to Belikhov, Dostoevsky met the family of Alexander Ivanovich Isaev and Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva and fell in love with the latter. Alexander Isaev took a new post in Kuznetsk, where he died in August 1855. Maria and her son then moved with Dostoevsky to Barnaul. In 1856, Dostoevsky sent a letter through Wrangel to General Eduard Totleben, apologising for his activity in several utopian circles. As a result, he obtained the right to publish books and to marry, although he remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life. Maria married Dostoevsky in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857, even though she had initially refused his marriage proposal, stating that they were not meant for each other and that his poor financial situation precluded marriage. Their family life was unhappy and she found it difficult to cope with his seizures. Describing their relationship, he wrote: "Because of her strange, suspicious and fantastic character, we were definitely not happy together, but we could not stop loving each other; and the more unhappy we were, the more attached to each other we became". They mostly lived apart.[62] In 1859 he was released from military service because of deteriorating health and was granted permission to return to European Russia, first to Tver, where he met his brother for the first time in ten years, and then to St Petersburg.[63][64]
The short story "A Little Hero" (Dostoevsky's only work completed in prison) appeared in a journal, but "Uncle's Dream" and "The Village of Stepanchikovo" were not published until 1860.
Dostoevsky travelled to western Europe for the first time on 7 June 1862, visiting Cologne, Berlin, Dresden, Wiesbaden, Belgium, and Paris. In London, he met
From August to October 1863, Dostoevsky made another trip to western Europe. He met his second love,
Second marriage and honeymoon (1866–1871)
The first two parts of Crime and Punishment were published in January and February 1866 in the periodical The Russian Messenger,[74] attracting at least 500 new subscribers to the magazine.[75]
Dostoevsky returned to Saint Petersburg in mid-September and promised his editor,
In September 1867, Dostoevsky began work on The Idiot, and after a prolonged planning process that bore little resemblance to the published novel, he eventually managed to write the first 100 pages in only 23 days; the serialisation began in The Russian Messenger in January 1868.
Their first child, Sofya, had been conceived in Baden-Baden, and was born in Geneva on 5 March 1868. The baby died of pneumonia three months later, and Anna recalled how Dostoevsky "wept and sobbed like a woman in despair".[82] Sofya was buried at the Cimetière des Rois (Cemetery of Kings), which is considered the Genevan Panthéon. The grave was later dissolved but in 1986 the International Dostoevsky Society donated a commemorative plaque.[83]
The couple moved from Geneva to Vevey and then to Milan before continuing to Florence. The Idiot was completed there in January 1869, the final part appearing in The Russian Messenger in February 1869.[84][85] Anna gave birth to their second daughter, Lyubov, on 26 September 1869 in Dresden. In April 1871, Dostoevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in Wiesbaden. Anna claimed that he stopped gambling after the birth of their second daughter, but this is a subject of debate.[e]
After hearing news that the socialist revolutionary group "People's Vengeance" had murdered one of its own members, Ivan Ivanov, on 21 November 1869, Dostoevsky began writing Demons.[88] In 1871, Dostoevsky and Anna travelled by train to Berlin. During the trip, he burnt several manuscripts, including those of The Idiot, because he was concerned about potential problems with customs. The family arrived in Saint Petersburg on 8 July, marking the end of a honeymoon (originally planned for three months) that had lasted over four years.[89][90]
Back in Russia (1871–1875)
Back in Russia in July 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions. Their son Fyodor was born on 16 July, and they moved to an apartment near the Institute of Technology soon after. They hoped to cancel their large debts by selling their rental house in Peski, but difficulties with the tenant resulted in a relatively low selling price, and disputes with their creditors continued. Anna proposed that they raise money on her husband's copyrights and negotiate with the creditors to pay off their debts in installments.[91][92]
Dostoevsky revived his friendships with Maykov and Strakhov and made new acquaintances, including church politician Terty Filipov and the brothers Vsevolod and Vladimir Solovyov. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, future Imperial High Commissioner of the Most Holy Synod, influenced Dostoevsky's political progression to conservatism. Around early 1872 the family spent several months in Staraya Russa, a town known for its mineral spa. Dostoevsky's work was delayed when Anna's sister Maria Svatkovskaya died on 1 May 1872, from either typhus or malaria,[93] and Anna developed an abscess on her throat.[91][94]
The family returned to St Petersburg in September. Demons was finished on 26 November and released in January 1873 by the "Dostoevsky Publishing Company", which was founded by Dostoevsky and his wife. Although they accepted only cash payments and the bookshop was in their own apartment, the business was successful, and they sold around 3,000 copies of Demons. Anna managed the finances. Dostoevsky proposed that they establish a new periodical, which would be called A Writer's Diary and would include a collection of essays, but funds were lacking, and the Diary was published in Vladimir Meshchersky's The Citizen, beginning on 1 January, in return for a salary of 3,000 rubles per year. In the summer of 1873, Anna returned to Staraya Russa with the children, while Dostoevsky stayed in St Petersburg to continue with his Diary.[95][96]
In March 1874, Dostoevsky left The Citizen because of the stressful work and interference from the Russian bureaucracy. In his fifteen months with The Citizen, he had been taken to court twice: on 11 June 1873 for citing the words of Prince Meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 March 1874. Dostoevsky offered to sell a new novel he had not yet begun to write to The Russian Messenger, but the magazine refused. Nikolay Nekrasov suggested that he publish A Writer's Diary in Notes of the Fatherland; he would receive 250 rubles for each printer's sheet – 100 more than the text's publication in The Russian Messenger would have earned. Dostoevsky accepted. As his health began to decline, he consulted several doctors in St Petersburg and was advised to take a cure outside Russia. Around July, he reached Ems and consulted a physician, who diagnosed him with acute catarrh. During his stay he began The Adolescent. He returned to Saint Petersburg in late July.[97][98]
Anna proposed that they spend the winter in Staraya Russa to allow Dostoevsky to rest, although doctors had suggested a second visit to Ems because his health had previously improved there. On 10 August 1875 his son Alexey was born in Staraya Russa, and in mid-September the family returned to Saint Petersburg. Dostoevsky finished The Adolescent at the end of 1875, although passages of it had been serialised in Notes of the Fatherland since January. The Adolescent chronicles the life of Arkady Dolgoruky, the illegitimate child of the landowner Versilov and a peasant mother. It deals primarily with the relationship between father and son, which became a frequent theme in Dostoevsky's subsequent works.[99][100]
Last years (1876–1881)
In early 1876, Dostoevsky continued work on his Diary. The book includes numerous essays and a few short stories about society, religion, politics and ethics. The collection sold more than twice as many copies as his previous books. Dostoevsky received more letters from readers than ever before, and people of all ages and occupations visited him. With assistance from Anna's brother, the family bought a
Dostoevsky's health declined further, and in March 1877 he had four epileptic seizures. Rather than returning to Ems, he visited Maly Prikol, a manor near
On 3 February 1880 Dostoevsky was elected vice-president of the Slavic Benevolent Society, and he was invited to speak at the unveiling of the Pushkin memorial in Moscow. On 8 June he delivered his speech, giving an impressive performance that had a significant emotional impact on his audience. His speech was met with thunderous applause, and even his long-time rival Turgenev embraced him. Konstantin Staniukovich praised the speech in his essay "The Pushkin Anniversary and Dostoevsky's Speech" in The Business, writing that "the language of Dostoevsky's [Pushkin Speech] really looks like a sermon. He speaks with the tone of a prophet. He makes a sermon like a pastor; it is very deep, sincere, and we understand that he wants to impress the emotions of his listeners."[105] The speech was criticised later by liberal political scientist Alexander Gradovsky, who thought that Dostoevsky idolised "the people",[106] and by conservative thinker Konstantin Leontiev, who, in his essay "On Universal Love", compared the speech to French utopian socialism.[107] The attacks led to a further deterioration in his health.[108][109]
Death
On 6 February [
It was this parable of transgression, repentance, and forgiveness that he wished to leave as a last heritage to his children, and it may well be seen as his own ultimate understanding of the meaning of his life and the message of his work.[115]
Among Dostoevsky's last words was his quotation of Matthew 3:14–15: "But John forbad him, saying, I have a need to be baptised of thee, and comest thou to me? And Jesus answering said unto him, Suffer it to be so now: for thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness", and he finished with "Hear now—permit it. Do not restrain me!".[116] His last words to his wife Anna were: "Remember, Anya, I have always loved you passionately and have never been unfaithful to you ever, even in my thoughts!"[117] When he died, his body was placed on a table, following Russian custom. He was interred in the Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Convent,[118] near his favourite poets, Nikolay Karamzin and Vasily Zhukovsky. It is unclear how many attended his funeral. According to one reporter, more than 100,000 mourners were present, while others describe attendance between 40,000 and 50,000. His tombstone is inscribed with lines from the New Testament:[113][119]
Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it dies, it bringeth forth much fruit.
Personal life
Extramarital affairs
Dostoevsky had his first known affair with Avdotya Yakovlevna, whom he met in the Panayev circle in the early 1840s. He described her as educated, interested in literature, and a femme fatale.[120] He admitted later that he was uncertain about their relationship.[121] According to Anna Dostoevskaya's memoirs, Dostoevsky once asked his sister's sister-in-law, Yelena Ivanova, whether she would marry him, hoping to replace her mortally ill husband after he died, but she rejected his proposal.[122]
Dostoevsky and Apollonia (Polina) Suslova had a short but intimate affair, which peaked in the winter of 1862–1863. Suslova's dalliance with a Spaniard in late spring and Dostoevsky's gambling addiction and age ended their relationship. He later described her in a letter to Nadezhda Suslova as a "great egoist. Her egoism and her vanity are colossal. She demands everything of other people, all the perfections, and does not pardon the slightest imperfection in the light of other qualities that one may possess", and later stated "I still love her, but I do not want to love her any more. She doesn't deserve this love ..."[62] In 1858 Dostoevsky had a romance with comic actress Aleksandra Ivanovna Schubert. Although she divorced Dostoevsky's friend Stepan Yanovsky, she would not live with him. Dostoevsky did not love her either, but they were probably good friends. She wrote that he "became very attracted to me".[123][124]
Through a worker in Epoch, Dostoevsky learned of the Russian-born Martha Brown (née Elizaveta Andreyevna Chlebnikova), who had had affairs with several westerners. Her relationship with Dostoevsky is known only through letters written between November 1864 and January 1865.
Political beliefs
In his youth, Dostoevsky enjoyed reading
While critical of serfdom, Dostoevsky was skeptical about the creation of a
In his incomplete article "Socialism and Christianity", Dostoevsky claimed that civilisation ("the second stage in human history") had become degraded, and that it was moving towards liberalism and losing its faith in God. He asserted that the traditional concept of Christianity should be recovered. He thought that contemporary western Europe had "rejected the single formula for their salvation that came from God and was proclaimed through revelation, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself', and replaced it with practical conclusions such as, 'Chacun pour soi et Dieu pour tous' [Every man for himself and God for all], or "scientific" slogans like 'the struggle for survival.'"[128] He considered this crisis to be the consequence of the collision between communal and individual interests, brought about by a decline in religious and moral principles.
Dostoevsky distinguished three "enormous world ideas" prevalent in his time: Roman Catholicism,
For all that, to place Dostoevsky politically is not that simple, but: as a Christian, he rejected atheistic socialism; as a traditionalist, he rejected the destruction of the institutions; and, as a pacifist, he rejected any violent method or upheaval led by either progressives or reactionaries. He supported private property and business rights, and did not agree with many criticisms of the free market from the socialist utopians of his time.[131][132][page needed]
During the
Ethnic beliefs
Many characters in Dostoevsky's works, including Jews, have been described as displaying negative stereotypes.[133] In an 1877 letter to Arkady Kovner, a Jew who had accused Dostoevsky of antisemitism, he replied with the following:
"I am not an enemy of the Jews at all and never have been. But as you say, its 40-century existence proves that this tribe has exceptional vitality, which would not help, during the course of its history, taking the form of various Status in Statu ... how can they fail to find themselves, even if only partially, at variance with the indigenous population – the Russian tribe?"[134]
Dostoevsky held to a
Religious beliefs
Dostoevsky was an Orthodox Christian[136] who was raised in a religious family and knew the Gospel from a very young age.[137] He was influenced by the Russian translation of Johannes Hübner's One Hundred and Four Sacred Stories from the Old and New Testaments Selected for Children (partly a German bible for children and partly a catechism).[138][137][139] He attended Sunday liturgies from an early age and took part in annual pilgrimages to the St. Sergius Trinity Monastery.[140] A deacon at the hospital gave him religious instruction.[139] Among his most cherished childhood memories were reciting prayers in front of guests and reading passages from the Book of Job that impressed him while "still almost a child."[141]
According to an officer at the military academy, Dostoevsky was profoundly religious, followed Orthodox practice, and regularly read the Gospels and Heinrich Zschokke's Die Stunden der Andacht ("Hours of Devotion"), which "preached a sentimental version of Christianity entirely free from dogmatic content and with a strong emphasis on giving Christian love a social application." This book may have prompted his later interest in Christian socialism.[142] Through the literature of Hoffmann, Balzac, Eugène Sue, and Goethe, Dostoevsky created his own belief system, similar to Russian sectarianism and the Old Belief.[142] After his arrest, aborted execution, and subsequent imprisonment, he focused intensely on the figure of Christ and on the New Testament: the only book allowed in prison.[143] In a January 1854 letter to the woman who had sent him the New Testament, Dostoevsky wrote that he was a "child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave." He also wrote that "even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth."[144]
In
Themes and style
Dostoevsky's canon includes novels, novellas, novelettes, short stories, essays, pamphlets, limericks, epigrams and poems. He wrote more than 700 letters, a dozen of which are lost.[147]
Dostoevsky expressed religious, psychological, and philosophical ideas in his writings. His works explore such themes as suicide, poverty, human manipulation, and morality. Psychological themes include dreaming, first seen in "White Nights",[148] and the father-son relationship, beginning in The Adolescent.[149] Most of his works demonstrate a vision of the chaotic sociopolitical structure of contemporary Russia.[150] His early works viewed society (for example, the differences between poor and rich) through the lens of literary realism and naturalism. The influences of other writers, particularly evident in his early works, led to accusations of plagiarism,[151][152] but his style gradually became more individual. After his release from prison, Dostoevsky incorporated religious themes, especially those of Russian Orthodoxy, into his writing. Elements of gothic fiction,[153] romanticism,[154] and satire[155] are observable in some of his books. He frequently used autobiographical or semi-autobiographical details.
An important stylistic element in Dostoevsky's writing is polyphony, the simultaneous presence of multiple narrative voices and perspectives.[156][page needed] Kornelije Kvas wrote that Bakhtin's theory of "the polyphonic novel and Dostoevsky's dialogicness of narration postulates the non-existence of the 'final' word, which is why the thoughts, emotions and experiences of the world of the narrator and his/her characters are reflected through the words of another, with which they can never fully blend."[157]
Legacy
Reception and influence
Dostoevsky is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential novelists of the
In his posthumous collection of sketches A Moveable Feast, Ernest Hemingway stated that in Dostoevsky "there were things believable and not to be believed, but some so true that they changed you as you read them; frailty and madness, wickedness and saintliness, and the insanity of gambling were there to know".[166] James Joyce praised Dostoevsky's prose: "... he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence."[167] In her essay The Russian Point of View, Virginia Woolf said, "Out of Shakespeare there is no more exciting reading".[168] Franz Kafka called Dostoevsky his "blood-relative"[169] and was heavily influenced by his works, particularly The Brothers Karamazov and Crime and Punishment, both of which profoundly influenced The Trial.[170] Hermann Hesse enjoyed Dostoevsky's work and said that to read him is like a "glimpse into the havoc".[171] The Norwegian novelist Knut Hamsun wrote that "no one has analyzed the complicated human structure as Dostoyevsky. His psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary."[172] Writers associated with cultural movements such as surrealism, existentialism and the Beats cite Dostoevsky as an influence,[173] and he is regarded as a forerunner to Russian symbolism,[174] expressionism[175] and psychoanalysis.[176]
Honours
In 1956 an olive-green postage stamp dedicated to Dostoevsky was released in the Soviet Union, with a
Numerous memorials were inaugurated in cities and regions such as Moscow, Saint Petersburg,
In 2021, Kazakhstan celebrated the 200th anniversary of Dostoyevsky's birth.[184]
Criticism
Dostoevsky's work did not always gain a positive reception. Some critics, such as
Basing his estimation on stated criteria of enduring art and individual genius, Nabokov judges Dostoevsky "not a great writer, but rather a mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humour but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between." Nabokov complains that the novels are peopled by "neurotics and lunatics" and states that Dostoevsky's characters do not develop: "We get them all complete at the beginning of the tale and so they remain." He finds the novels full of contrived "surprises and complications of plot", which are effective when first read, but on second reading, without the shock and benefit of these surprises, appear loaded with "glorified cliché".[187] The Scottish poet and critic Edwin Muir, however, addressed criticism regarding the quality of Dostoevsky's characters, noting that "regarding the 'oddness' of Dostoevsky's characters, it has been pointed out that they perhaps only seem 'pathological', whereas in reality they are 'only visualized more clearly than any figures in imaginative literature'."[188]
Reputation
Dostoevsky's books have been translated into more than 170 languages.[189] The German translator Wilhelm Wolfsohn published one of the first translations, parts of Poor Folk, in an 1846–1847 magazine,[190] and a French translation followed. French, German and Italian translations usually came directly from the original, while English translations were second-hand and of poor quality.[191] The first English translations were by Marie von Thilo in 1881, but the first highly regarded ones were produced between 1912 and 1920 by Constance Garnett.[192] Her flowing and easy translations helped popularise Dostoevsky's novels in anglophone countries, and Bakhtin's Problems of Dostoevsky's Creative Art (1929) (republished and revised as Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics in 1963) provided further understanding of his style.[193]
Dostoevsky's works were interpreted in film and on stage in many different countries. Princess Varvara Dmitrevna Obolenskaya was among the first to propose staging Crime and Punishment. Dostoevsky did not refuse permission, but he advised against it, as he believed that "each art corresponds to a series of poetic thoughts, so that one idea cannot be expressed in another non-corresponding form". His extensive explanations in opposition to the transposition of his works into other media were groundbreaking in fidelity criticism. He thought that just one episode should be dramatised, or an idea should be taken and incorporated into a separate plot.[194] According to critic Alexander Burry, some of the most effective adaptions are Sergei Prokofiev's opera The Gambler, Leoš Janáček's opera From the House of the Dead, Akira Kurosawa's film The Idiot and Andrzej Wajda's film The Possessed.[195]
After the
Works
Dostoevsky's works of fiction include 16 novels and novellas, 17 short stories, and 5 translations. Many of his longer novels were first published in serialised form in literary magazines and journals. The years given below indicate the year in which the novel's final part or first complete book edition was published. In English many of his novels and stories are known by different titles.
Major works
Poor Folk
Poor Folk is an epistolary novel that depicts the relationship between the small, elderly official Makar Devushkin and the young seamstress Varvara Dobroselova, remote relatives who write letters to each other. Makar's tender, sentimental adoration for Varvara and her confident, warm friendship for him explain their evident preference for a simple life, although it keeps them in humiliating poverty. An unscrupulous merchant finds the inexperienced girl and hires her as his housewife and guarantor. He sends her to a manor somewhere on a steppe, while Makar alleviates his misery and pain with alcohol.
The story focuses on poor people who struggle with their lack of self-esteem. Their misery leads to the loss of their inner freedom, to dependence on the social authorities, and to the extinction of their individuality. Dostoevsky shows how poverty and dependence are indissolubly aligned with deflection and deformation of self-esteem, combining inward and outward suffering.[201]
Notes from Underground
Notes from Underground is split into two stylistically different parts, the first essay-like, the second in narrative style. The protagonist and
The first part is a record of his thoughts about society and his character. He describes himself as vicious, squalid and ugly; the chief focuses of his polemic are the "modern human" and his vision of the world, which he attacks severely and cynically, and towards which he develops aggression and vengefulness. He considers his own decline natural and necessary. Although he emphasises that he does not intend to publish his notes for the public, the narrator appeals repeatedly to an ill-described audience, whose questions he tries to address.
In the second part he describes scenes from his life that are responsible for his failure in personal and professional life and in his love life. He tells of meeting old school friends, who are in secure positions and treat him with condescension. His aggression turns inward on to himself and he tries to humiliate himself further. He presents himself as a possible saviour to the poor prostitute Lisa, advising her to reject self-reproach when she looks to him for hope. Dostoevsky added a short commentary saying that although the storyline and characters are fictional, such things were inevitable in contemporary society.
The Underground Man was very influential on philosophers. His alienated existence from the mainstream influenced
Crime and Punishment
The novel Crime and Punishment has received both critical and popular acclaim. It remains one of the most influential and widely read novels in Russian literature,[204] and has been sometimes described as Dostoevsky's magnum opus.[205]
Crime and Punishment follows the mental anguish and moral dilemmas of Rodion Raskolnikov, an impoverished ex-student in Saint Petersburg who plans to kill an unscrupulous pawnbroker, an old woman who stores money and valuable objects in her flat. He theorises that with the money he could liberate himself from poverty and go on to perform great deeds, and seeks to convince himself that certain crimes are justifiable if they are committed in order to remove obstacles to the higher goals of 'extraordinary' men. Once the deed is done, however, he finds himself racked with confusion, paranoia, and disgust. His theoretical justifications lose all their power as he struggles with guilt and horror and confronts both the internal and external consequences of his deed.
The Idiot
The title is an ironic reference to the central character of the novel, Prince Lev Nikolayevich Myshkin, a young man whose goodness, open-hearted simplicity and guilelessness lead many of the more worldly characters he encounters to mistakenly assume that he lacks intelligence and insight. In the character of Prince Myshkin, Dostoevsky set himself the task of depicting "the positively good and beautiful man."[209] The novel examines the consequences of placing such a singular individual at the centre of the conflicts, desires, passions and egoism of worldly society, both for the man himself and for those with whom he becomes involved.
Joseph Frank describes The Idiot as "the most personal of all Dostoevsky's major works, the book in which he embodies his most intimate, cherished, and sacred convictions."[210] It includes descriptions of some of his most intense personal ordeals, such as epilepsy and mock execution, and explores moral, spiritual and philosophical themes consequent upon them. His primary motivation in writing the novel was to subject his own highest ideal, that of true Christian love, to the crucible of contemporary Russian society.
Demons
Demons is a social and political satire, a psychological drama, and large-scale tragedy. Joyce Carol Oates has described it as "Dostoevsky's most confused and violent novel, and his most satisfactorily 'tragic' work."[211] According to Ronald Hingley, it is Dostoevsky's "greatest onslaught on Nihilism", and "one of humanity's most impressive achievements—perhaps even its supreme achievement—in the art of prose fiction."[212]
Demons is an allegory of the potentially catastrophic consequences of the political and moral nihilism that were becoming prevalent in Russia in the 1860s.[213] A fictional town descends into chaos as it becomes the focal point of an attempted revolution, orchestrated by master conspirator Pyotr Verkhovensky. The mysterious aristocratic figure of Nikolai Stavrogin—Verkhovensky's counterpart in the moral sphere—dominates the book, exercising an extraordinary influence over the hearts and minds of almost all the other characters. The idealistic, Western-influenced generation of the 1840s, epitomized in the character of Stepan Verkhovensky (who is both Pyotr Verkhovensky's father and Nikolai Stavrogin's childhood teacher), are presented as the unconscious progenitors and helpless accomplices of the "demonic" forces that take possession of the town.
The Brothers Karamazov
The Brothers Karamazov is Dostoevsky's largest work. It received both critical and popular acclaim and is often cited as his magnum opus.[214] Composed of 12 "books", the novel tells the story of the novice Alyosha Karamazov, the non-believer Ivan Karamazov, and the soldier Dmitri Karamazov. The first books introduce the Karamazovs. The main plot is the death of their father Fyodor, while other parts are philosophical and religious arguments by Father Zosima to Alyosha.[215][216]
The most famous chapter is "The Grand Inquisitor", a parable told by Ivan to Alyosha about Christ's Second Coming in Seville, Spain, in which Christ is imprisoned by a ninety-year-old Catholic Grand Inquisitor. Instead of answering him, Christ gives him a kiss, and the Inquisitor subsequently releases him, telling him not to return. The tale was misunderstood as a defence of the Inquisitor, but some, such as Romano Guardini, have argued that the Christ of the parable was Ivan's own interpretation of Christ, "the idealistic product of the unbelief". Ivan, however, has stated that he is against Christ. Most contemporary critics and scholars agree that Dostoevsky is attacking Roman Catholicism and socialist atheism, both represented by the Inquisitor. He warns the readers against a terrible revelation in the future, referring to the Donation of Pepin around 750 and the Spanish Inquisition in the 16th century, which in his view corrupted true Christianity.[217][215][216]
Sigmund Freud wrote an essay called "Dostoevsky and Parricide" (German: Dostojewski und die Vatertötung) as an introductory article to a scholarly collection on "The Brothers Karamazov".
Bibliography
Novels and novellas
|
Short stories
|
Essay collections
- Winter Notes on Summer Impressions (1863)
- A Writer's Diary (1873–1881)
Translations
- (1843) Eugénie Grandet (Honoré de Balzac)
- (1843) La dernière Aldini (George Sand)
- (1843) Mary Stuart (Friedrich Schiller)
Personal letters
- (1912) Letters of Fyodor Michailovitch Dostoevsky to His Family and Friends by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Author), translator Ethel Colburn Mayne Kessinger Publishing, LLC (26 May 2006) ISBN 978-1-4286-1333-1
Posthumously published notebooks
- (1922) Stavrogin's Confession & the Plan of the Life of a Great Sinner – English translation by S.S. Koteliansky
References
Notes
- ^ His name has been variously transcribed into English, his first name sometimes being rendered as Theodore or Fedor.
- Ф, Dostoevsky's name was written Ѳедоръ Михайловичъ Достоевскій.
- ^ In Old Style dates: 30 October 1821 – 28 January 1881
- Slavophile movement Pochvennichestvo, supported by Dostoevsky during his term of imprisonment and in the following years.[65]
- ^ Another reason for his abstinence might have been the closure of casinos in Germany in 1872 and 1873 (it was not until the rise of Adolf Hitler that they were reopened)[86] or his entering a synagogue that he confused with a gambling hall. According to biographer Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky took that as a sign not to gamble any more.[87]
Citations
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- ^ "Dostoevsky". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ a b Morson, Gary Saul (7 November 2023). "Fyodor Dostoyevsky". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ Scanlan (2002).
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- ^ Dominique Arban, Dostoïevski, Seuil, 1995, p. 5
- ^ a b Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 1–5.
- ^ a b Frank (1979), pp. 6–22.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 11.
- ISBN 978-0-300-04868-1.
- ^ Lavrin (1947), p. 7.
- ^ Hingley (1978), p. 17.
- ^ Bloom (2004), p. 9.
- ^ a b Breger (2008), p. 72.
- ^ Leatherbarrow (2002), p. 23.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 6–11.
- ^ a b Frank (1979), pp. 23–54.
- ^ "Natural School (Натуральная школа)". Brief Literary Encyclopedia in 9 Volumes. Moscow. 1968. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
- ^ Mochulsky (1967), p. 4.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 61.
- ^ Ruttenburg, Nancy (4 January 2010). Dostoevsky's Democracy. Princeton University Press. pp. 76–77.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 6.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 39.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 14–15.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 17–23.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 69–90.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 2.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 24–7.
- ^ a b c Frank (1979), pp. 69–111.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 59.
- ^ Reik, Theodor (1940). "The Study on Dostoyevsky." In From Thirty Years with Freud, Farrar & Rhinehart, Inc., pp. 158–76.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 109.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 31–36.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 114–15.
- ^ Breger (2008), p. 104.
- ^ Grossman, Leonid (2011). Достоевский [Dostoevsky] (in Russian). AST. p. 536.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 36–37.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 73.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 113–57.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 42–49.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 159–82.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 53–55.
- ^ Mochulsky (1967), pp. 115–21.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 59.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 239–46, 259–346.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 58–69.
- ^ Frank & (2010), pp. 152–158.
- ^ Mochulsky (1967), pp. 99–101.
- ^ Belinsky, Vissarion (1847). Letter to Gogol. Documents in Russian History, Seton Hall University. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- ^ Mochulsky (1967), pp. 121–33.
- ^ a b Frank (1987), pp. 6–68.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 72–79.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 79–96.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 113.
- ^ Pisma, I: pp. 135–37.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 96–108.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 8–20.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), pp. 107–21.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 112–13.
- ^ Frank (1987), pp. 165–267.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 108–13.
- ^ a b Sekirin (1997), p. 168.
- ^ Frank (1987), pp. 175–221.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 115–63.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 34–64.
- ^ Frank (1987), pp. 290 et seq.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 8–62.
- ^ Kjetsaa 1989, pp. 135–37.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 233–49.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 143–45.
- ISBN 978-1-5179-0031-1.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 197–211, 283–94, 248–365.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 151–75.
- ^ Frank (2010), 462.
- ^ Leatherbarrow (2002), p. 83.
- ^ Frank (1997), pp. 42–183.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 162–96.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 178.
- ISBN 978-0-85728-763-2.
- Wikidata Q109057625.
- ^ "Fiodor Dostojewski – biografia, wiersze, utwory". poezja.org (in Polish). Retrieved 18 June 2022.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 219.
- ISBN 978-2-8321-0372-2.
- ^ Frank 1997, pp. 151–363.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 201–37.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 245.
- ^ Frank (2003), p. 639.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 240–61.
- ^ Frank (1997), pp. 241–363.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 265.
- ^ a b Frank (2003), pp. 14–63.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 265–67.
- ^ Nasedkin, Nikolay. Вокруг Достоевского [Around Dostoyevsky]. The Dostoyevsky Encyclopedia (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 268–71.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 38–118.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 269–89.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 120–47.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 273–95.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 149–97.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 273–302.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 199–280.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 303–06.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 320–75.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 307–49.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 255.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 170.
- ^ Lantz (2004), pp. 230–31.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 475–531.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 353–63.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), pp. 309–16.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. xxxiii.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 223.
- ^ a b Frank (2003), pp. 707–50.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 368–71.
- ^ Frank (2010), p. 925.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 371–72.
- ^ Mikhailova, Valeriya (6 March 2017). "To be the wife of Fyodor Dostoevsky (part 4)". Bloggers Karamazov.
- ^ "Dostoevsky in Petersburg". F.M. Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 373 et seqq.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 50.
- OCLC 609509729
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 299.
- ^ Frank (1988), pp. 18–19.
- ^ Mochulsky (1967), pp. 183–84.
- ^ Frank (2010), pp. 445–6.
- ^ Lantz (2004), pp. 45–46.
- ^ Sekirin (1997), p. 169.
- ^ a b c Lantz (2004), pp. 183–89.
- ^ a b c Lantz (2004), pp. 323–27.
- ^ Lantz (2004), p. 185.
- ISBN 9780810115163. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
- ISBN 9781554588169. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
- ^ Eberstadt, Fernanda (1987). "Dostoevsky and the Jews". Commentary Magazine.
- ISBN 9780813514536.
- ^ Dostoevsky, Fyodor (1919). The Diary Of A Writer. translated and annotated by Boris Brasol. New York: George Braziller. p. 779. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
- ^ Pattison & Thompson (2001), p. 135.
- ^ a b Frank (1979), p. 401.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b Jones (2005), p. 1.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 7–9.
- ^ Frank (2010), pp. 24, 30.
- ^ a b Jones (2005), p. 2.
- ^ Jones (2005), p. 6.
- ^ Jones (2005), p. 7.
- ^ Frank (1979), pp. 22–23.
- ^ Jones (2005), pp. 7–9.
- ^ Достоевский Федор Михайлович: Стихотворения [Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky: Poems] (in Russian). Lib.ru. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ Frank (2010), p. 110.
- ISBN 978-0-521-32436-6.
- ^ Terras (1998), p. 59.
- ^ Terras (1998), p. 14.
- ^ Bloshteyn (2007), p. 3.
- ^ Lantz (2004), pp. 167–70.
- ^ Lantz (2004), pp. 361–64.
- ^ Scanlan (2002), p. 59.
- ^ a b Bakhtin, M.M. (1984) Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Edited and translated by Caryl Emerson. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6.
- ^ Lauer (2000), p. 364.
- ^ Frank (2010), p. 369.
- ^ Aimée Dostoyevskaya (1921). Fyodor Dostoyevsky: A Study. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. p. 218.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-4209-2.
- ^ Freud, Sigmund (1961). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. The Hogarth Press. p. 177.
- ISBN 9780226716398.
- ^ Müller (1982), p. 7.
- ^ See. KSA 13, 14[222] and 15[9]
- ISBN 978-81-269-0772-4.
- ISBN 9781901866414.
- ISBN 015602778X.
- ISBN 978-90-420-1194-6.
- ^ Struc, Roman S. (1981). "Kafka and Dostoevsky as 'Blood Relatives'". Dostoevsky Studies. 2. University of Toronto – International Dostoevsky Society: 111–7. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012.
- ^ Müller (1982), p. 8.
- ^ Lavrin (1947), p. 161.
- ^ Bloshteyn (2007), p. 5.
- ^ Lavrin (2005), p. 38.
- ^ Burry (2011), p. 57.
- ^ Breger (2008), p. 270.
- ^ "'Oru Sankeerthanam Pole' goes into 100th edition". The New Indian Express. No. 26 November 2017.
- ^ "Russian Postage Stamps of 1956–1960". Soyuzpechat. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ "Museum" (in Russian). F.M. Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ Радио ФИНАМ ФМ 99.6 (in Russian). ФИНАМ. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ Результаты Интернет голосования [Internet voting results] (in Russian). Name of Russia. Archived from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ^ "Liublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line". Moscow Metro. Archived from the original on 10 March 2012.
- ^ "A Dark View Of Dostoevsky On The Moscow Subway". NPR.org. 9 August 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ Babich, Dmitry (10 November 2021). "Dostoyevsky's 200th Anniversary Celebrated in Kazakhstan, the Land of His Formative Years". The Astana Times. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
- ^ a b The 1872 novel ″Demons″, Russian: Бесы, Bésy, by Fyodor Dostoevsky is sometimes also titled The Possessed or The Devils
- ^ Terras 1998, pp. 3–4.
- ISBN 978-0-15-602776-2.
- ISBN 9780191647802.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. foreword.
- ^ Meier-Gräfe (1988), p. 492.
- ^ Bloshteyn (2007), p. 26.
- ^ Jones & Terry (2010), p. 216.
- ISBN 978-0-19-818359-4.
- ^ Burry (2011), p. 3.
- ^ Burry (2011), p. 5.
- ^ "[Д-З]". Forbidden Books of Russian Writers and Literary Scientists, 1917–1991 (in Russian). Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ^ "3.3. Книги об отдельных писателях". Forbidden Books of Russian Writers and Literary Scientists, 1917–1991. Archived from the original on 20 February 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ^ Bloshteyn (2007), pp. 7–8.
- ISBN 9780691094595.
- ^ Vladimir Bushin. Враньё от юного папуаса [Fids from a young Papuan]. Pravda (in Russian). Archived from the original on 29 October 2013.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 69–103.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-2393-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8077-5.
- ^ "Greatest Russian Novels of All Time". Goodreads. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
- ISBN 9781633882546.
- ^ Kjetsaa (1989), p. 183.
- ^ Frank (1997), p. 45, 60–182.
- ^ Cregan-Reid, Vybarr; Bauer, Pat. "Crime and Punishment". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
- ISBN 0-521-07911-X.
- ^ Frank (2010), p. 577.
- ^ Oates, Joyce Carol (January 1978). "The tragic vision of The Possessed". The Georgia Review. 32 (4 – Winter 1978): 868. See also in Celestial Timepiece Blog.
- ^ Hingley (1978), pp. 158–9.
- S2CID 145671815.
- ^ Frank (2003), pp. 390–441.
- ^ a b Frank (1997), pp. 567–705.
- ^ a b Kjetsaa (1989), pp. 337–414.
- ^ Müller (1982), pp. 91–103.
- ^ Dostoyefsky, F.M. (1920). "A Beggar Boy at Christ's Christmas Tree". Little Russian Masterpieces. Chosen and translated by Zénaïde A. Ragozin. Introduction and biographical notes by S.N. Syromiatnikof. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 172.
Bibliography
- Bercken, Wil van den (2011). Christian Fiction and Religious Realism in the Novels of Dostoevsky. Anthem Press. ISBN 978-0-85728-976-6.
- Bloshteyn, Maria R. (2007). The Making of a Counter-Culture Icon: Henry Miller's Dostoevsky. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9228-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4128-0843-9.
- Burry, Alexander (2011). Multi-Mediated Dostoevsky: Transposing Novels Into Opera, Film, and Drama. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-2715-9.
- Cassedy, Steven (2005). Dostoevsky's Religion. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5137-7.
- Cicovacki, Predrag (2012). Dostoevsky and the Affirmation of Life. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-4606-6.
- Goldstein, David (1981). Dostoevsky and the Jews. Foreword by ISBN 978-0-292-71528-8.
- Hingley, Ronald (1978). Dostoyevsky His Life and Work. London: Paul Elek Limited. ISBN 0-236-40121-1.
- Jones, Malcolm V. (2005). Dostoevsky And the Dynamics of Religious Experience. Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-205-5.
- Jones, Malcolm V.; Terry, Garth M. (2010). New Essays on Dostoyevsky. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15531-1.
- Lantz, Kenneth A. (2004). The Dostoevsky Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-30384-5.
- Lauer, Reinhard (2000). Geschichte der Russischen Literatur: von 1700 bis zur Gegenwart (in German). Verlag C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-50267-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4179-8844-0.
- Leatherbarrow, William J (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Dostoevskii. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65473-9.
- Maurina, Zenta(1940). A Prophet of the Soul: Fyodor Dostoievsky. Translated by C. P. Finlayson. James Clarke & Co. Ltd.
- ISBN 978-3-458-32799-8.
- Mochulsky, Konstantin (1967) [1967]. Dostoevsky: His Life and Work. Minihan, Michael A. (translator). ISBN 978-0-691-01299-5.
- Müller, Ludolf (1982). Dostojewskij: Sein Leben, Sein Werk, Sein Vermächtnis (in German). Erich Wewel Verlag. ISBN 978-3-87904-100-8.
- Paperno, Irina (1997). Suicide as a Cultural Institution in Dostoevsky's Russia. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8425-4.
- ISBN 978-0-521-78278-4.
- ISBN 978-985-90125-1-8.
- Scanlan, James Patrick (2002). Dostoevsky the Thinker: A Philosophical Study. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3994-0.
- Sekirin, Peter, ed. (1997). The Dostoevsky Archive: Firsthand Accounts of the Novelist from Contemporaries' Memoirs and Rare Periodicals, Most Translated Into English for the First Time, with a Detailed Lifetime Chronology and Annotated Bibliography. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0264-9.
- Terras, Victor (1998). Reading Dostoevsky. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-16054-8.
- Biographies
- ISBN 978-0-7910-8117-4.
- ISBN 9780691128191.
- Frank, Joseph (2003) [2002]. Dostoevsky: The Mantle of the Prophet, 1871–1881. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11569-6.
- Frank, Joseph (1997) [1995]. Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01587-3.
- Frank, Joseph (1988) [1986]. Dostoevsky: The Stir of Liberation, 1860–1865. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01452-4.
- Frank, Joseph (1987) [1983]. Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850–1859. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01422-7.
- Frank, Joseph (1979) [1976]. Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821–1849. ISBN 978-0-691-01355-8.
- ISBN 978-0-449-90334-6.
- Lavrin, Janko (1947). Dostoevsky. New York The Macmillan Company. OCLC 646160256.
Further reading
- Allen, James Sloan (2008), "Condemned to Be Free," Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life, Savannah: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 978-1-929490-35-6
- Birmingham, Kevin. 2021. The sinner and the saint: Dostoevsky and the gentleman murderer who inspired a masterpiece. New York: Penguin.
- Berdyaev, Nicolas (1948). The Russian Idea, The Macmillan Company.
- Bierbaum, Otto Julius (1910–1911). "Dostoyevsky and Nietzsche," The Hibbert Journal, Vol. IX.
- Hubben, William. (1997). Dostoevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Kafka: Four Prophets of Our Destiny, Simon & Schuster. Originally published in 1952.
- Lavrin, Janko (1918). "Dostoyevsky and Certain of his Problems," Part II, Part III, Part IV, Part V, Part VI, Part VII, Part VIII, Part IX, Part X, The New Age, Vol. XXII, Nos. 12–21.
- Lavrin, Janko (1918). "The Dostoyevsky Problem," The New Age, Vol. XXII, No. 24, pp. 465–66.
- Maeztu, Ramiro de (1918). "Dostoyevsky the Manichean," The New Age, Vol. XXII, No. 23, 1918, pp. 449–51.
- Manning, Clarence Augustus (1922). "Dostoyevsky and Modern Russian Literature," The Sewanee Review, Vol. 30, No. 3.
- Seccombe, Thomas (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 438–439.
- Simmons, Ernest J. (1940). Dostoevsky: The Making Of A Novelist, Vintage Books.
- Westbrook, Perry D. (1961). The Greatness of Man: An Essay on Dostoyevsky and Whitman. New York: Thomas Yoseloff.
External links
Digital collections
- Works by Fyodor Dostoevsky in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
- Works by Fyodor Dostoyevsky at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Fyodor Dostoevsky at Internet Archive
- Works by Fyodor Dostoevsky at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Fyodor Dostoyevsky collection at One More Library
- The complete works of Fyodor Dostoyevsky (in Russian) – the online published bibliography in its original language
Scholarly works
- International Dostoevsky Society – a network of scholars dedicated to studying the life and works of Fyodor Dostoevsky
- FyodorDostoevsky.com – discussion forums, essays, quotes, photos, biography of the author
- Archives of Dostoevsky Studies ISSN 1013-2309, a journal published from 1980 to 1988
Other links
- Dostoevsky's family tree
- Fyodor Dostoevsky at the Internet Book List
- Dostoevsky, Fyodor (8 June 2016). A Novel in Nine Letters. Translated by Garnett, Constance Clara. Also available in the original Russian Archived 15 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
- Dostoevsky, Fyodor (4 March 2017). The Dream of a Ridiculous Man. Translated by Garnett, Constance. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
- Newspaper clippings about Fyodor Dostoevsky in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Places of Fyodor Dostoevsky in Saint Petersburg