Double genocide theory
According to the double genocide theory (Lithuanian: Dvigubo genocido požiūris, lit. 'Double genocide approach'), two genocides of equal severity occurred in Eastern Europe: the Holocaust against Jews perpetrated by Nazi Germany and a second genocide by the Soviet Union. The theory first became popular in post-Soviet Lithuania, in discussions about the Holocaust in Lithuania.[1] A more explicitly antisemitic version of the theory accuses Jews of complicity in Soviet repression and characterizes local participation in the Holocaust as retaliation, especially in Lithuania, eastern Poland, and northern Romania.[2][3][4][5] Double genocide theory has been criticized by scholars as a form of Holocaust trivialization.
History
After the fall of the Soviet Union, many post-Soviet states, particularly the Baltic states, built memorials to victims of the Soviet occupation, awarded posthumous honors to Nazi collaborators, and devoted public resources to historical committees that prioritized their nations' suffering under Soviet occupation over the suffering of their nation's Jews under Nazi occupation.[6][7]
In Lithuania, the
Lithuanian Historian Vytautas Berenis commented that the double genocide theory has considerable influence in Lithuanian historiography and journalism. Berenis states that Lithuanian nationalists excuse their country's collaboration by asserting that collaborators were merely retaliating against "
In 2010, political scientist Evgeny Finkel commented: "There is hardly any country in the vast region from Estonia in the north to Kazakhstan in the south in which either the authorities or the opposition have not seriously considered the idea of officially recognising past sufferings as genocides, often finding creative ways to reconcile the legal definition of the concept ... and the historical record."[2]
Analysis
According to Michael Shafir, the double genocide theory is at worst Holocaust obfuscation.[14] Political scientist Clemens Heni sees it as a form of Holocaust trivialization.[15] Historian Alexander Karn writes that the idea of double genocide "hinge[s] upon the erasure of Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust".[16] Ethnologist Carole Lemée sees it as a symptom of persistent antisemitism.[17]
American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz describes double genocide theory as a form of Holocaust revisionism, whose debate is prompted by a "movement in Europe that believes the crimes—morally, ethically—of Nazism and Communism are absolutely equal, and that those of us who don't think they're absolutely equal, are perhaps soft on Communism."[18] According to Katz, the double genocide theory is "a relatively recent initiative (though rooted in older apologetics regarding the Holocaust) that seeks to create a moral equivalence between Soviet atrocities committed against the Baltic region and the Holocaust in European history."[18] Katz further writes that "the debate has garnered political traction/currency since the Baltic states joined the European Union in 2004. Since joining the EU, the Baltic states have attempted to downplay their nations' massive collaboration with the Nazis and to enlist the West in revising history in the direction of Double Genocide thinking."[18] Katz recommends that "states in the region honor the victims of Communism and expose the evils of Communism as unique issues, 'without the equals-sign'."[18]
Bloodlands and the Holocaust uniqueness debate
According to historian
Memory politics and the Holocaust in Eastern Europe
Red Holocaust was coined by the
According to American ethnographer and Professor of Russian and East European Studies at the
In The Holocaust/Genocide Template in Eastern Europe (2020), political scientist Ljiljana Radonić discusses how "the 'memory wars' in the course of the post-Communist re-narration of history since 1989 and the current authoritarian backlash" and how "'mnemonic warriors' employ the 'Holocaust template' and the concept of genocide in tendentious ways to justify radical policies and externalize the culpability for their international isolation and worsening social and economic circumstances domestically."[33] In this sense, "the 'double genocide' paradigm ... focuses on 'our own' national suffering under – allegedly 'equally' evil – Nazism and Communism".[33] Radonić posits that this theory and charges of Communist genocide come from "a stable of anti-communist émigré lexicon since the 1950s and more recently revisionist politicians and scholars" as well as the "comparative trivialization" of the Holocaust that "results from tossing postwar killings of suspected Axis collaborators and opponents of Tito's regime into the same conceptual framework as the Nazi murder of six million of Jews", describing this as "an effort to demonize communism more broadly as an ideology akin to Nazism".[33]
Notable cases
In 2006, historian Yitzhak Arad, who was a prisoner of the Vilna Ghetto and escaped by joining the Soviet partisans,[34] was labelled an "NKVD storm trooper" by Lithuanian newspaper Respublika. In 2008, two elderly Jewish women were investigated for their partisan activities. Arad cited those prosecutions as flowing from the double genocide theory, whose concept is described as follows: "In order to justify the participation of Lithuanians in the mass murder of Jews, there was a perceived need to invent Jews who similarly killed Lithuanians."[35] In response to the investigations,[36] Katz described this as a form of Holocaust obfuscation, another term for the double genocide theory, that "involves a series of false moral equivalences: Jews were disloyal citizens of pre-war Lithuania, helped the Soviet occupiers in 1940, and were therefore partly to blame for their fate. And the genocide that really matters was the one that Lithuanian people suffered at Soviet hands after 1944."[37]
The
See also
- Anti-communism
- Black Ribbon Day
- Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism
- Genocide recognition politics
- Holocaust trivialization
- Prague Declaration
- The Seventy Years Declaration
- Żydokomuna
References
- S2CID 158144987.
- ^ S2CID 144068609.], argued that the region was subject to 'double genocide'—the one perpetrated by the Soviets, and the Holocaust committed by Nazi Germany. Supporters of this theory, which became very popular in the mid-1990s, claimed that Lithuanian Jews actively participated in the repression of the local population, and therefore the collaboration with the Nazis and participation in the Holocaust were merely acts of revenge.
In the Baltic States—Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia—many people view the communist era, and especially the 1940s, as the period of Soviet genocide against the local population. Furthermore, some Baltic intellectuals and political figures, such as the prominent Lithuanian writer Jonas Mikelinskas
- S2CID 216139226.
Its latest iteration centers on east-central Europe—and especially in Lithuania—in the form of the 'double-genocide thesis' which posits that the Soviet and Nazi regimes committed genocides of equal gravity against the Baltic, Slavic and Jewish inhabitants of what Timothy Snyder calls the 'bloodlands'.
- ISBN 978-3-319-78589-9.
According to this 'theory,' there were two major genocides in Lithuania, the Soviet one (consisting of deportations and repressions) and the Holocaust. Both were extremely tragic events, and, according to some defenders of memory, they should be even viewed as equal. Yet some proponents of this 'theory' took the argument even further than merely asserting that there were two equally tragic developments in Lithuania. They argued that some Lithuanian Jews supported the occupying Soviet forces, and those Lithuanians who were participating in the Holocaust, were retaliating for the losses experienced during the first Soviet occupation. In other words, some Jews were participating in the 'Soviet genocide' against the Lithuanians. Needless to say, this 'theory' is flawed on many different levels. However, it did reflect a relatively popular way of thinking in the mid- and late 1990s.
- S2CID 199137931.
- ISBN 978-3-11-033761-7, retrieved 2023-06-15
- ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
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- ^ Berenis, Vytautas (2000). "Holokaustas ir lietuviu istorine samone" (PDF). Politologija (in Lithuanian). 3 (19): 3–24.
Lietuvių istoriografijoje didelę įtaką turi 'dviejų genocidų' teorija, kuri, galima sakyti, yra vyraujanti. Šia prasme 'dviejų genocidų' arba 'dvigubos simetrijos' teorijos istoriniai argumentai yra tokie: 1) žydai aktyviai dalyvavo komunistiniame judėjime; 2) žydai laukė Raudonosios Armijos atėjimo, vadinasi ir, Lietuvos okupacijos; 3) žydai dalyvavo komunistų represijose ir dirbo represinėse struktūrose. Tokie argumentai, kaip mano autoriai, turėtų paaiškinti 'spontanišką' lietuviųlceršto proveržį pirmosiomis karo dienomis. Reikia pripažinti, kad ši, nors dar ir reanimuojama koncepcija, neturi didelės įtakos lietuvių istoriografijoje. Bet ji gaji istorinėje publicistikoje, teigiant, kad 1940 m. žydai suvaidino pragaištingą vaidmenį ir susikompromitavo kaip Lietuvos piliečiai bei neteko vietos gyventojų pasitikėjimo. Argumentuota faktų kalba buvo įrodyta, kad didžioji žydų dalis nepritarė bolševikinei santvarkai Lietuvoje arba netrukus ja nusivylė. Faktais buvo įrodyta, kad 1941 m. birželio 14 d. trėmimai palietė nemažai Lietuvos žydų.
- .
Toks vertinimas susilaukë arðios reakcijos lietuviø emigracijo-je JAV. Tarnavæ lietuviø savisaugos batalionuose, policijoje ar savi-valdoje, jie turëjo savo 1941–1944 m. aiðkinimo schemà. Lietuvai at-gavus nepriklausomybæ ir pradëjus diskutuoti ðiais klausimais,iðeiviø vertinimas persikëlë á vietiná istoriografiná diskursà. Ben-drais bruoþais þydø þudymo politika 1941–1944 m. bei lietuviø daly-vavimas joje buvo aiðkinamas ir vertinamas pagal teorinæ 'dviejøgenocidø' schemà: 1. Þydai aktyviai dalyvavo komunistiniame ju-dëjime; 2. Jie laukë Raudonosios armijos atëjimo, vadinasi – ir Lie-tuvos okupacijos; 3. Þydai aktyviai dalyvavo lietuviø represijose irdirbo NKVD struktûrose.Tokie 'argumentai', kaip mano tokio poþiûrio ðalininkai, turë-jo paaiðkinti spontaniðkà lietuviø kerðto proverþá prieð þydus pir-mosiomis karo dienomis, bandyti pateisinti kolaboravimà su na-ciais okupacijos metais. Savo 'istoriografinæ gynybà' jie bandëpagrásti dviem argumentais: lietuviai prisidëjo likviduojant tik þy-dus komunistus, o masines þydø þudynes organizavo vokieèiø na-cistai ir jose dalyvavo tik lietuviø visuomenës 'padugnës'.Dabartiniai lietuviø istorikai argumentuotai, faktø kalba pa-neigë mità, kad þydai sudarë daugumà Lietuvos komunistø vietinë-se valdþios ir represinëse struktûrose. Pavyzdþiui, Lietuvos istorikaifaktais árodë, kad 'dviejø genocidø' teorija yra klaidinga, o 1940 m.spalio mën. Lietuvos komunistø partijoje 68,49 proc. buvo lietuviø,16,24 – þydø, 11,97 – rusø. NKVD struktûrose 1941 m. birþelio mën.pradþioje 52,2 proc. sudarë rusai, 31,2 proc. – lietuviai, 16,6 proc. –þydai, Lietuvos komjaunimo organizacijoje þydai sudarë 23,8 proc.
- .
Lietuviai taip pat linkę save suvokti vien kaip dviejų totalitarinių režimų, t. y. nacių Vokietijos ir Sovietų Sąjungos, auką ir vis dar vengia atidžiau įvertinti savo vaidmenį karo metų įvykiuose bei pripažinti lietuvių padarytus nusikaltimus. Panašiai kaip J. Haslingeris Austrijoje, Tomas Venclova Lietuvoje kritikuoja tautiečiams būdingą bet kokios kaltės neigimą ir vis dar gają 'dviejų genocidų' teoriją. Kritiškas požiūris išdėstomas viename garsiausių jo esė 'Žydai ir lietuviai' (1975) ir plėtojamas vėlesnėse publikacijose.
- ^ Shafir, Michael (Summer 2016). "Ideology, Memory and Religion in Post-Communist East Central Europe: A Comparative Study Focused on Post-Holocaust". Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. 15 (44): 52–110.
- ^ Heni, Clemens (26 October 2009). "The Prague Declaration, Holocaust Obfuscation and Antisemitism". Wissenschaft und Publizistik Als Kritik. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
... in trivializing the Holocaust by framing this process as a study of totally 'equal' totalitarian regimes, or, as it has been called for short by critics, 'red equals brown.'
- ISBN 978-0-299-30554-3.
- JSTOR 44971741.
- ^ a b c d Liedy, Amy Shannon; Ruble, Blair (7 March 2011). "Holocaust Revisionism, Ultranationalism, and the Nazi/Soviet 'Double Genocide' Debate in Eastern Europe". Wilson Center. Retrieved 14 November 2020.
- ^ a b Beckerman, Gal (13 March 2011). "Exploring the 'Bloodlands'". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- ^ Zuroff, Efraim (11 May 2011). "The equivalency canard". Haaretz. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- ^ Zuroff, Efraim (29 September 2010). "A dangerous Nazi-Soviet equivalence". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- ^ Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- ^ Katz, Dovid (30 September 2010). "Why red is not brown in the Baltics". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
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- ^ .
A coining of communism as 'red Holocaust,' as had been suggested by the Munich Institut fur Zeitgeschichte, did not find much ground, neither in Germany nor elsewhere in international discussions.
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- ISBN 978-0-803-29000-6. Quote at p. 157.
- ^ a b Shafir, Michael (Summer 2016). "Ideology, Memory and Religion in Post-Communist East Central Europe: A Comparative Study Focused on Post-Holocaust". Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. 15 (44): 52–110. Quote at pp. 64 and 74.
- ISBN 978-0-253-03274-4. Quote at p. 46
- ^ a b Subotić, Jelena (18 November 2019). "How Holocaust Memory was Hijacked in Post-Communist States". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
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- ^ Malinauskaite, Gintare. "Reversed Memories of the Second World War War". Holocaust Memory and Antisemitism in Lithuania: Holocaust Memory and Antisemitism in Lithuania. Proceedings / International conference “Antisemitism in Europe Today: the Phenomena, the Conflicts” 8–9 November 2013 Organized by the Jewish Museum Berlin, the Foundation “Remembrance, Responsibility and Future” and the Center for Research on Antisemitism Berlin. Jüdisches Museum Berlin. p. 5.
- ^ Lazare, Daniel (9 September 2014). "Timothy Snyder's Lies". Jacobin. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
- ^ "Defaming Jews and distorting history in Lithuania". Politico. 28 August 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- ^ "Prosecution and persecution – Lithuania must stop blaming the victims". The Economist. 21 August 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
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External links
- Ben-Mosche, Danny; Katz, Dovid (20 January 2012). "70 Years Declaration". Defending History. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
- "'Holocaust Obfuscation' as Specific Term enters the Diplomatic Lexicon". Defending History. 9 February 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2022.