Doukhobors
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The Doukhobors or Dukhobors (Russian: духоборы, духоборцы, romanized: dukhobory, dukhobortsy; lit. 'Spirit-warriors, Spirit-wrestlers')[2][3][4][5] are a Spiritual Christian ethnoreligious group of Russian origin. They are known for their pacifism and tradition of oral history, hymn-singing, and verse. They reject the Russian Orthodox priesthood and associated rituals, believing that personal revelation is more important than the Bible. Facing persecution by the Russian government for their nonorthodox beliefs, many migrated to Canada between 1899 and 1938, where most currently reside.[6]
Doukhobors have been variously portrayed as "
The Doukhobors have a history dating back to at least 1701 (though some scholars suspect the group has earlier origins).[8] Doukhobors traditionally lived in their own villages and practiced communal living. The name Doukhobors, meaning "Spirit-wrestlers", derives from a slur made by the Russian Orthodox Church that was subsequently embraced by the group.[9]
Before 1886, the Doukhobors had a series of leaders. The origin of the Doukhobors is uncertain; they first appear in first written records from 1701.
The Doukhobors traditionally ate bread and
History
In the 17th-and-18th-century
The first-known Doukhobor leader was Siluan (Silvan) Kolesnikov (Russian: Силуан Колесников), who was active from 1755 to 1775. Kolesnikov lived in the village Nikolskoye, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, in modern-day south-central Ukraine.[13] Kolesnikov was familiar with the works of Western mystics such as Karl von Eckartshausen and Louis Claude de Saint-Martin.[14]
The early Doukhobors called themselves "God's People" or "Christians." Their modern name, first in the form Doukhobortsy (Russian: духоборцы, dukhobortsy ("Spirit wrestlers") ) is thought to have been first used in 1785 or 1786 by
The early Doukhobors were pacifists who rejected military institutions and war and were thus oppressed in
In 1802, Tsar
Transcaucasian exile
When
In 1844, Doukhobors who were being exiled from their home near Melitopol to the village of Bogdanovka carved the Doukhobor Memorial Stone, which is now held in the collection of the Melitopol Museum of Local History.[22]
After Russia's conquest of
The Kalmykov dynasty lived in the village of Gorelovka, a Doukhobor community in Georgia.
Religious revival and crises
The death of Lukerya, who had no children, was followed by a leadership crisis that divided the Dukhobortsy in the Caucasus into two major groups, which disputed their next leader. Lukerya wanted leadership to pass to her assistant
While the Large Party was a majority, the Small Party had the support of the older members of the community and the local authorities. On January 26, 1887, at a community service at which the new leader was to be acclaimed, police arrived and arrested Verigin. He, along with some of his associates, was sent into internal exile in Siberia. Large Party Doukhobors continued to consider Verigin their spiritual leader and to communicate with him, by mail and via delegates who travelled to see him in Obdorsk.[24][26][27] An isolated population of exiled Doukhobors, a third "party", was about 5,000 miles (8,000 km) east in Amur Oblast.
At the same time, the Russian government applied greater pressure to enforce the Doukhobors' compliance with its laws and regulations. The Doukhobors had resisted registering marriages and births, contributing grain to state emergency funds, and swearing oaths of allegiance. In 1887, Russia extended universal military conscription, which applied to the rest of the empire, to the Transcaucasian provinces. While the Small Party cooperated with the state, the Large Party, reacting to the arrest of their leaders and inspired by their letters from exile,
Under further instructions from Verigin, about 7,000 of the most zealous Doukhobors—about one-third of all Doukhobors—of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia destroyed their weapons and refused to serve in the military. As the Doukhobors gathered to burn their guns on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11, Gregorian calendar) 1895, while singing psalms and spiritual songs, government Cossacks arrested and beat them. Shortly after, the government billeted Cossacks in many of the Large Party's villages; around 4,000 Doukhobors were forced to disperse to villages in other parts of Georgia. Many died of starvation and exposure.[26][29]
Migration to Canada
First emigrants
The resistance of the Doukhobors gained international attention and the Russian Empire was criticized for its treatment of this religious minority. In 1897, the Russian government agreed to let the Doukhobors leave the country, subject to conditions:
- emigrants should never return;
- emigrants must emigrate at their own expense;
- community leaders currently in prison or exile in Siberia must serve the balance of their sentences before they could leave Russia.[13]
Emigrants initially attempted to settle in
Canada offered more land, transportation, and aid to resettle in the Saskatchewan area. Around 6,000 Doukhobors emigrated there in the first half of 1899, settling on land granted to them by the government in modern-day Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The Cyprus colony and others joined them, and around 7,500 Russian Doukhobor emigrants—about a third of their number in Russia—arrived in Canada by the end of the year.[31] Several smaller groups joined the main body of emigrants in later years, coming directly from Transcaucasia and other places of exile.[26] Among these latecomers were 110 leaders of the community who had to complete their sentences before being allowed to emigrate.[31] By 1930, about 8,780 Doukhobors had migrated from Russia to Canada.[32]
The Quakers and Tolstoyan movement covered most of the costs of passage for the emigrants; writer Leo Tolstoy arranged for the royalties from his novel Resurrection, his story Father Sergei, and some others to go to the emigration fund. Tolstoy also raised money from wealthy friends; his efforts provided about 30,000 rubles, half of the emigration fund. The anarchist Peter Kropotkin and professor of political economy at the University of Toronto James Mavor also helped the emigrants.[33][34]
The emigrants adapted to life in agricultural communes; they were mostly of peasant origin and had low regard for advanced education. [b] Many worked as loggers, lumbermen, and carpenters. Eventually, many left the communal dormitories and became private farmers on the Canadian plains. Religious a cappella singing, pacifism, and passive resistance were markers of the sect. One subgroup occasionally demonstrated naked, typically as a protest against compulsory military service.[36] Their policies made them controversial. The modern descendants of the first wave of Doukhobor emigrants continue to live in southeastern British Columbia communities such as Krestova, and in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. As of 1999[update], the estimated population of Doukhobor descent in North America was 40,000 in Canada and about 5,000 in the United States.[1]
Canadian prairies
In accordance with the
The land for the Doukhobor immigrants, in total 773,400 acres (3,130 km2) within what was to soon become the Province of Saskatchewan, came in three block settlement areas or "reserves", and an annex:[38]
- The North Colony, also known as the "Thunder Hill Colony" or "Swan River Colony" in the Pelly and Arran districts of Saskatchewan became home to 2,400 Doukhobors from Tiflis Governorate, who established 20 villages on 69,000 acres (280 km2) of the land grant.
- The South Colony, also known as the "Whitesand Colony" or "Kars Oblastsettled there in 30 villages on 215,010 acres (870.1 km2) of land grant.
- The Good Spirit Lake Annex in the Buchanan district of Saskatchewan received 1,000 Doukhobors from Elisabethpol Governorate and Kars Oblast, Russia, and settled there in eight villages on 168,930 acres (683.6 km2) of land grant. The annex was along the Good Spirit River, which flows into Good Spirit Lake (previously known as Devil's Lake).
- The Saskatchewan Colony, also known as the "Blaine Lake districts of Saskatchewan, north-west of Saskatoon. 1,500 Doukhobors from Kars Oblast settled there in 13 villages on 324,800 acres (1,314 km2) of land grant.
North and South Colonies, and Good Spirit Lake Annex, were located around
In 1899, all four reserves formed part of the Northwest Territories: Saskatchewan (Rosthern) Colony in the territories' provisional District of Saskatchewan. North Reserve straddled the boundary of Saskatchewan and Assiniboia districts, and the other reserves were entirely in Assiniboia. After the establishment of the Province of Saskatchewan in 1905, all reserves were located within that province.[citation needed]
Verigin persuaded his followers to free their animals, and pull their wagons and plows themselves. On the lands granted to them in the prairies, the settlers established Russian-style villages, some of which received Russian names after settlers' home villages in Transcaucasia; for example Spasovka, Large and Small Gorelovka, and Slavianka; while others gained more abstract "spiritual" names not common in Russia, such as Uspeniye (
Popular distrust
Canadians, politicians, and the media were deeply suspicious of the Doukhobors. Their communal lifestyle seemed suspicious, their refusal to send children to school was considered deeply troubling, while pacifism caused anger during the
Loss of land rights
Due to the community's aversion to private ownership of land, Verigin had the land registered in the name of the community. By 1906, the Canadian Government's new Minister of the Interior Frank Oliver started requiring the registration of land in the name of individual owners. Many Doukhobors refused to comply, resulting in 1907 in the reverting of more than a third (258,880 acres (1,047.7 km2)) of Doukhobor lands back to the Crown. The loss of legal title to their land became a major grievance.
Schism
Ten years after the Russian conscription crisis, another political issue arose because the Doukhobors would have to become naturalized British citizens and swear an Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown—something that had always been against their principles.[44]
The issue resulted in a three-way split of the Doukhobor community in Canada:[13]
- The edinolichniki (Independents), who in 1907 comprised 10% of the Canadian Doukhobors, maintained their religion but abandoned communal ownership of land and rejected hereditary leadership and communal living as non-essential to it.
- The obshchine (Communal, or Community) were largest group, sometimes called "orthodox Doukhobors" (not to be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church), led by their spiritual leader Peter V. Verigin. They formed the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood (CCUB), which reformed in 1939 as the Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ (USCC).[45]
- The svobodniki (free, sovereign people) in 1902 tried to return to Russia, refused to obey laws, and attacked law-abiding Doukhobors. They became the famous dissident "Sons of Freedom", also called "Freedomites" by the media. They embraced Verigin's writings in such a zealous manner that he banned them. The media and government mistakenly confused them with all Doukhobors when reporting their sensational protests.[citation needed]
Of these groupings, the Independents integrated the most readily into Canadian capitalist society. They had no problem registering their land groups and largely remained in Saskatchewan. In 1939, they definitively rejected the authority of Peter Verigin's great-grandson John J. Verigin, Sr.[citation needed]
British Columbia and Verigin's assassination
In 1908, to remove his followers from the corrupting influence of non-Doukhobors and edinolichniki (individual owners) Doukhobors, and to find better conditions for agriculture, Verigin bought large tracts of land in south-eastern British Columbia. His first purchase was around Grand Forks near the US border. He later acquired large tracts of land further east in the Slocan Valley around Castlegar. Between 1908 and 1912, about 8,000 people moved from Saskatchewan to these British Columbia lands to continue their communal way of living.[38] In the milder climate of British Columbia, the settlers were able to plant fruit trees and within a few years became renowned orchardists and producers of fruit preserves. As the Community Doukhobors left Saskatchewan, the reserves there were closed by 1918.
On October 29, 1924, Peter V. Verigin was killed in a bomb explosion on a scheduled passenger train en route to British Columbia. The government had initially stated the bombing was perpetrated by people within the Doukhobor community, although no arrests were made because of the Doukhobors' customary refusal to cooperate with Canadian authorities due to fear of intersect violence. It is still unknown who was responsible for the bombing. While the Doukhobors were initially welcomed by the Canadian government, this assassination, as well as Doukhobors' beliefs regarding communal living, their intolerance for schooling, and other beliefs considered offensive or unacceptable, created a decades-long mistrust between government authorities and Doukhobors.[46]
Peter V. Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin, who arrived from the Soviet Union in 1928, succeeded his father as leader of the Community Doukhobors. He became known as "Peter the Purger" (Chistiakov) and worked to smooth relations between the Community Doukhobors and wider Canadian society. The governments in Ottawa and the western provinces concluded he was the closet leader of the Sons of Freedom and was perhaps a dangerous
Doukhobors could not vote in British Columbia until 1952. They were the last ethnic or religious community to be granted suffrage in the province.[49]
Nudism and arson
The Sons of Freedom used nudism and arson as visible methods of protest.[50] They protested against materialism, the land seizure by the government, compulsory education in government schools, and Verigin's assassination. This led to many confrontations with the Canadian government and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which continued into the 1970s. Nudism was first used after the Doukhobors' arrival in Canada.[36] They used violence to fight modernity, and destroyed threshing machines and other signs of modernity. The group conducted night-time arson attacks on schools built by the Doukhobor commune and Verigin's house.[46]
During 1947 and 1948, Sullivan's
In less than fifty years, the Sons of Freedom committed 1,112 separate acts of violence and arson, costing over $20 million in damages; these acts include bombing and arson attacks on public schools, bombings of Canadian railway bridges and tracks,
Doukhobors remaining in Russia
After the departure of the more zealous and uncompromising Doukhobors, and many community leaders, to Canada at the close of the
Those who remained Doukhobors were required to submit to the state. Few protested against military service; of 837 Russian court-martial cases against conscientious objectors recorded between the beginning of World War I and April 1, 1917, 16 had Doukhobor defendants, none of whom hailed from the Transcaucasian provinces.[24] Between 1921 and 1923, Verigin's son Peter P. Verigin arranged the resettlement of 4,000 Doukhobors from the Ninotsminda (Bogdanovka) district in south Georgia to Rostov Oblast in southern Russia, and another 500 into Zaporizhzhia Oblast in Ukraine.[26][56]
The Soviet reforms greatly affected the lives of the Doukhobors, both in their old villages in Georgia and in the new settlement areas in southern Russian and Ukraine. State anti-religious campaigns resulted in the suppression of Doukhobor religious tradition, and the loss of books and archival records. Many religious leaders were arrested or exiled; for example, 18 people were exiled from Gorelovka in 1930.[26] Communists' imposition of collective farming did not contradict the Doukhobor way of life. Industrious Doukhobors made their collective farms prosperous, often specializing in cheesemaking.[26]
Of the Doukhobor communities in the Soviet Union, those in South Georgia were the most sheltered from outside influence because of their geographic isolation in mountainous terrain, their location near the international border, and concomitant travel restrictions for outsiders.[26]
Hymnody
Doukhobor oral holy hymns, which they call the "Book of Life" (Russian: Zhivotnaya kniga), de facto replaced the written Bible. Their teaching is founded on this tradition.[57][58] The Book of Life of the Doukhobors (1909) is the first printed hymnal containing songs in the Southern Russian dialect, which were composed to be sung aloud. Their prayer meetings and gatherings are dominated by the singing of a cappella psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs.[58]
Population
Current population
In 2001, an estimated 20,000–40,000 people of Doukhobor heritage lived in Canada, 3,800 of whom claimed "Doukhobor" as their religious affiliation. An estimated 30,000 people of Doukhobor heritage live in Russia and neighbouring countries. In 2011, there were 2,290 persons in Canada who identified their religious affiliation as "Doukhobor"; in Russia there were 50 such persons by the mid-2000s.
Canada
CCUB, the Orthodox Doukhobors organization or Community Doukhobors, was succeeded by the Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ formed by Peter P. Verigin, Peter V. Verigin's son, in 1938.[59] The largest and most active formal Doukhobor organization, it is headquartered in Grand Forks, British Columbia.[60]
During the
Age groups | Total | 0–14 years | 15–24 years | 25–44 years | 45–64 years | 65–84 years | 85 years and over |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Canadians, 2001 | 29,639,035 | 5,737,670 | 3,988,200 | 9,047,175 | 7,241,135 | 3,337,435 | 287,415 |
Self-identified Doukhobors, 2001 | 3,800 | 415 | 345 | 845 | 1,135 | 950 | 110 |
Self-identified Doukhobors, 1991 | 4,820 | 510 | 510 | 1,125 | 1,400 | 1,175 | 100 |
Twenty-eight percent of the self-identified Doukhobors in 2001 were over 65 (born before 1936), as compared to 12% of the entire population of Canadian respondents. The aging of the denomination is accompanied by its shrinkage, starting in the 1960s:[61][62]
Census year | Self-identified Doukhobor population |
---|---|
1921 | 12,674 |
1931 | 14,978 |
1941 | 16,898 |
1951 | 13,175 |
1961 | 13,234 |
1971 | 9,170 |
1981.g., 28% | ? coded as "Doukhobor, Orthodox" and "Doukhobor, Reformed" |
1991 | 4,820 |
2001 | 3,800 |
2011 | 2,290 |
2021 | 1,675 |
The number of Canadians with Doukhobor heritage is much higher than the number of those who consider themselves members of this religion. In 2012, Doukhobor researchers estimated there were "over 20,000" people "from [Doukhobor] stock" in Canada[62] and over 40,000 Doukhobors by "a wider definition of religion, ethnicity, way of life, and social movement".[63][page needed]
Canadian Doukhobors no longer live communally. Doukhobors do not practice baptism. They reject several items considered orthodox among Christian churches, including church organization and liturgy, the inspiration of the scriptures, the literal interpretation of resurrection, the literal interpretation of the Trinity, and heaven and hell. Some avoid the use of alcohol, tobacco, and animal products for food, and eschew involvement in partisan politics. Doukhobors believe in the goodness of man and reject the idea of original sin.[64]
Georgia and Russia
Since the late 1980s, many of the Doukhobors of Georgia started emigrating to Russia. Various groups moved to Tula Oblast, Rostov Oblast, Stavropol Krai, and elsewhere. After the 1991 independence of Georgia, many villages with Russian names received Georgian names; Bogdanovka became Ninotsminda, Troitskoe became Sameba. According to various estimates, in Ninotsminda District, the Doukhobor population fell from around 4,000 in 1979 to between 3,000 and 3,500 in 1989, and around 700 in 2006. In Dmanisi district, it fell from around 700 Doukhobors in 1979 to no more than 50 by the mid-2000s. Most of those who remain in Georgia are older people; the younger generation found it easier to relocate to Russia. The Doukhobor community of Gorelovka in Ninotsminda District, the former "capital" of the Kalmykov family, is thought to be the best-preserved in all former Soviet Union countries.[26]
Ecumenical relations
The Doukhobors have maintained a close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.[65][66][67]
Historical sites and museums
In 1995, the
A Doukhobor museum, currently known as "Doukhobor Discovery Centre" (formerly, "Doukhobor Village Museum") operates in Castlegar, British Columbia. It contains over 1,000 artifacts representing the arts, crafts, and daily lives of the Doukhobors of the Kootenays in 1908–38.[69][70]
Although most of the early Doukhobor village structures in British Columbia have vanished or been significantly remodelled by later users, a part of Makortoff Village outside
The
Linguistic history and dialect
The Doukhobors took with them to Canada a Southern Russian dialect, which in the following decades changed under the influence of Canadian English and the speech of the Ukrainian settlers in Saskatchewan. Over several generations, this dialect has been mostly lost because the modern descendants of the original Doukhobor migrants to Canada are typically native English speakers; when they speak Russian, it is typically a fairly standard variety.[5]
Linguistic history
In 1802, the Doukhobors and other
Starting in 1841, the Doukhobors and others were resettled from southern Ukraine to
With the migration of 7,500 Doukhbors from Transcaucasia to Saskatchewan in 1899, and some smaller latecomer groups from both Transcaucasia and from places of exile in Siberia and elsewhere, the dialect spoken in the Doukhobor villages of Transcaucasia was taken to the plains of Canada. From that point, it experienced influence from Canadian English and, during the years of Doukhobor stay in Saskatchewan, the speech of their Ukrainian neighbours.[5][77][78]
A split in the Doukhobor community resulted in a large number of Doukhobors moving from Saskatchewan to south-eastern
By the 1970s, as most Russian-born members of the community died, English became the first language of the great majority of Canadian Doukhobors.[79][62] Their English speech is not noticeably different from that of other English-speaking Canadians of their provinces. Russian still remains in use, at least for religious purposes, among those who practice the Doukhobor religion.[5]
Features of the Doukhobor Russian dialect in Canada
Research into the Russian spoken by Canada's Doukhobors has not been extensive but several articles, mostly published in the 1960s and 1970s, noted a variety of features in Doukhobors' Russian speech that were characteristic of Southern, and in some cases Central Russian dialects; for example, use of the Southern [h] where Standard Russian has [g].[75][80]
Features characteristic of many locales in the
In popular culture
- A 1962 naturistsettlers.
- Roy, Gabrielle (1975), "Hoodoo Valley", Garden in the wind (novel), McClelland & Stewart.
- A Robert A. Heinlein short story, The Year of the Jackpot, briefly mentions the Doukhobors as a group in Canada that practised nudity.
- O'Neail, Hazel (1962), Doukhobor Daze, Gray's, Evergreen.
- Parry, Nerys (2011), Man and Other Natural Disasters, Great Plains.[81]
- Plotnikoff, Vi (2001). Head Cook at Weddings and Funerals, And Other Stories of Doukhobor Life (novel). Raincoast Books..
- Stenson, Bill (2007). Svoboda (novel). Thistledown Press. ISBN 978-1-897235-30-0..[82]
Drama
- Doukhobors (1970). Collective creation at Theatre Passe Muraille.
Non-fiction
- Marsden, Philip (1998), The Spirit Wrestlers: A Russian Odyssey, HarperCollins.
- Tarasoff, Koozma J. (2002), Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living, Legas.
- Woodcock, George; Avakumovic, Ivan (1977), The Doukhobors, Carleton University Institute of Canadian Studies, McClelland & Stewart.
- Wright, James; Wright, Frederic Church (1940), Slava Bohu, Farrar & Rinehart Inc.
Music
- Reynolds, Malvina (1962), "Do As the Doukhobors Do", The Best of Broadside 1962–88 (originally The Doukhobor Do) is about the Doukhobor nude protests. The song was recorded by Pete Seeger.
- In the bonus track "Ferdinand the Imposter" on the 2000 re-issue of Baltimore, Maryland. He attempted to escape punishment by stating he came from the Doukhobors of Canada. Unfortunately for Ferdinand, the American officers were unfamiliar with the group and were unmoved by Ferdinand's plea.[84]
Television
- Woodcock, George (1976), The Doukhobors (film), CBC/NFB. Two parts: The Living Book and Toil and Peaceful Life.[85]
Notes
- ^ Nikifor was styled "Archbishop of Slavyansk and Kherson" (Славенский и Херсонский), while his successor, who was also called Ambrosius, was "Archbishop of Yekaterinoslav and Kherson" because the diocese was renamed in 1786.[17] The seat of the archbishops was in Poltava.
- ^ Not until 1918 did Peter Makaroff become the "first Doukhobor in the world to get an education, to receive a university degree, and to enter a profession".[35]
References
- ^ a b Magocsi, Paul Robert, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. pp. 422–434.
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- ^ "Peel 4372: Bonch-Bruevich, Vladimir Dmitrievich, Dukhobortsy v Kanadskikh preriiakh (1918)". peel.library.ualberta.ca. Archived from the original on January 16, 2022. Retrieved February 11, 2021.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Archivedfrom the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved February 11, 2021.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-78308-046-5. Archivedfrom the original on January 16, 2022. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ Sainsbury, Brendan. "Canada's little-known Russian sect". www.bbc.com. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
- ^ a b Pinkerton, Robert (1833), Russia: or, Miscellaneous Observations on the Past and Present State of that Country and its Inhabitants, archived from the original on December 31, 2018, retrieved January 23, 2020
- ^ Sussex, R. (1993), "Slavonic Languages in Emigration", in Comrie, B.; Corbett, G.G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, Routledge.
- ^ "Doukhobors". The Canadian Encyclopedia. February 26, 2019. Archived from the original on June 10, 2023.
During the late 18th century, the group was persecuted by the tsars and the Russian Orthodox Church for heresy and pacifism. In 1785, an Orthodox archbishop called them Doukhobors, or "Spirit-Wrestlers." It was intended to mean "Wrestlers against the Holy Spirit," but the group adopted it, interpreting it as "Wrestlers for and with the Spirit."
- ^ "Civilization.ca - Doukhobors - Food for the Body". www.historymuseum.ca. Archived from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved May 2, 2020.
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- ^ "Bread Salt and Water". usccdoukhobors.org. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved May 2, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Campos, Élisabeth (2005). Les Doukhobors, "Lutteurs de l'esprit" [The Doukhobors, "Spirit Fighters"] (in French). ERTA TCRG. Archived from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved January 12, 2008.
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- ^ a b Inikova, Svetlana A. (October 22–24, 1999), Spiritual Origins and the Beginnings of Doukhobor History, Doukhobor Centenary Conference, University of Ottawa, archived from the original on March 18, 2016, retrieved July 28, 2016; Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org).
- ^ "H Orthodox Russian Ekater", Hierarchy (in Russian), RU: Religare, archived from the original on February 1, 2009, retrieved January 12, 2008
- ^ a b c Peretitskaya, Victoria I. (April 2014). "RUSSIAN DOUKHOBORS AT THE PEACE CONFERENCE IN VANCOUVER, CANADA, 1958" (PDF). Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts: 111–119. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 16, 2022. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7735-9554-5. Archivedfrom the original on January 16, 2022. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ Kalmakoff, Jonathan. "The Hyas Doukhobour Settlement" (PDF). Saskatchewan History. 59 (2): 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 16, 2022. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ from the original on November 30, 2020. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ "Doukhobor Memorial Stone from the Village of Bogdanovka". Doukhobor Heritage. January 25, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
- ProQuest 1293167920 – via ProQuest.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87586-427-3. Archived from the original on July 7, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ Kalmakoff, Jonathan J. "Doukhobor Historical Maps: Doukhobors Settlements in the Georgian Republic". Doukhobor Genealogy. Archived from the original on March 19, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2016..
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Lohm, Hedwig (November 2006). "Dukhobors in Georgia: A Study of the Issue of Land Ownership and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Ninotsminda rayon (Samtskhe-Javakheti)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 2, 2010.
- ^ McCormick, P.L. (1978). "The Doukhobors in 1904" (PDF). Saskatchewan History. 31 (1): 12–19. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2020. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ Pozdnyakov, Vasily Nikolaevich (В. Поздняков) (1900s). Правда о духоборах в Закавказье и в Сибири [The Truth about the Doukhobors in Transcaucasia and Siberia] (in Russian). VG and AK Chertkov (published 1914)., quoted in Golinenko, O.A. (ОА Голиненко). Вопросы Л.Н. Толстого Духобору [Leo Tolstoy's questions to a Doukhobor] (in Russian). Archived from the original on April 9, 2008. Retrieved January 15, 2008.
- ^ Tarasoff, Koozma J. (2015). Doukhobor Nonkilling Legacy (PDF). Center for Global Nonkilling. p. 187. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 24, 2016. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
- ^ Kalmakoff, Jonathan J. "Index to Doukhobor Ship Passenger Lists". Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org). Archived from the original on February 25, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
- ^ a b Ashworth, John (1900). "Doukhobortsy and Religious Persecution in Russia". Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org). Archived from the original on March 18, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2016..
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- ^ "1917 - Women Win the Right to Vote". Legislative Assembly of British Columbia.
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- ^ Chertkov 1911.
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- ^ a b "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables: Religion", Statistics Canada, May 8, 2013, archived from the original on November 2, 2013, retrieved November 2, 2013. The census numbers are actually based on extrapolating a 20% sample.
- ^ a b c Postnikoff, John I. (May 1978) [1977]. "Doukhobors: An Endangered Species". MIR magazine. No. 16. Grand Forks, BC: MIR Publication Society. Archived from the original on April 16, 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2023 – via Doukhobor Genealogy Website (www.doukhobor.org).
- ^ Tarasoff 2002.
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The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country—the only action which seemed possible.
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The only contact with Mennonites was the period 1802–41 when they lived in the Molotschna, where Johann Cornies (q.v.) rendered them considerable assistance.
- ^ Doukhobor Suspension Bridgey. Canadian Register of Historic Places. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
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- Samtskhe-Javakhetiarea, where the Doukhobor villages were
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wood, James, ed. (1907). "Doukhobours". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. London and New York: Frederick Warne.
Bibliography
- Bartolf, Christian / Dominique Miething: "Flame of Truth": the global significance of Doukhobor Pacifism. Russian Journal of Church History, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Special Issue: History of Christian Peacemaking and Pacifism, Editor: Dr. Nadezhda Beliakova) (2023): 6-27. PDF
- Chertkov, Vladimir (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 448–49.
- Elkinton, Joseph, The Doukhobors: their history in Russia; their migration to Canada.
- Friesen, John W; Verigin, Michael M, The Community Doukhobors: A People in Transition.
- Hamm, James 'Jim' (2002), Spirit Wrestlers (documentary video) about the FreedomiteDoukhobors.
- Hawthorn, Harry B, The Doukhobors of British Columbia.
- Holt, Simma. Terror in the Name of God The Story of the Sons of Freedom Doukhobors (McClelland and Stewart, 1964)
- Peacock, Kenneth, ed. (1970), Songs of the Doukhobors: An Introductory Outline, National Museums of Canada Bulletin No. 231, Folklore Series No. 7, translated by E. A. Popoff (song texts), Ottawa: The National Museums of Canada; Queen's Printer of Canada, archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2023
- Tarasoff, Koozma J, Plakun Trava: The Doukhobors.
- Tarasoff, Koozma J. "Doukbhobors" in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (1999) pp 422–34
- ——— (2002), "Overview", Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living, Ottawa: Legas (published 2006), ISBN 1-896031-12-9.
- Tarasoff, Koozma J.; Klymasz, Robert B. (1995), Spirit Wrestlers: centennial papers in honour of Canada's Doukhobor Heritage, ISBN 0-660-14034-9.
- Thorsteinson, Elina (1917). "The Doukhobors in Canada". Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 4 (1): 3–48. JSTOR 1886809.
- Woodcock, George; Avakumovic, Ivan, The Doukhobors.
- Makarova V. (2012). The use of Russian in contemporary Doukhobor prayer service. In: International scientific research Internet conference "Current issues in philology and methods of teaching foreign languages", February 1–29, 2012, Novosibirsk, Russia. Международнaя научно-практическая Интернет-конференция «Актуальные проблемы филологии и методики преподавания иностранных языков», 1 февраля - 29 февраля 2012 года; http://ffl.nspu.net/?p=144 Archived December 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- Makarova V. A., Usenkova, E.V., Evdokimova, V.V. Evgrafova, K. V. (2011). The Language of Saskatchewan Doukhobors: Introduction to analysis. Izvestija Vysshix uchebnyx zavedenij [The News of Higher Schools]. Serija Gumanitarnyje nauki [Humanities]. Razdel Lingvistika [Linguistics section]. Vol 2 (2), pp. 146–151. http://www.isuct.ru/e-publ/gum/ru/2011/t02n02/philology-and-linguistics Archived March 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- Schaarschmidt Gunter (University of Victoria, Canada) Four norms – one culture: Doukhobor Russian in Canada
- Schaarschmidt, G. (2012). Russian language history in Canada. Doukhobor internal and external migrations: effects on language development and structure. In: V. Makarova (Ed), Russian Language Studies in North America: the New Perspectives from Theoretical and Applied Linguistics . London/New York: Anthem Press. pp. 235–260. www.anthempress.com
Further reading
- Burnham, Dorothy K (1986), Unlike the Lilies: Doukhobor Textile Traditions in Canada, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Royal Ontario Museum, ISBN 0-88854-322-0.
- Cran, Gregory J. Negotiating Buck Naked: Doukhobors, Public Policy, and Conflict Resolution (UBC Press, 2006) 180 pp. deals only with the Sons of Freedom.
- Donskov, Andrew; Woodsworth, John; Gaffield, Chad (2000), The Doukhobor Centenary in Canada: A Multi-Disciplinary Perspective on Their Unity and Diversity, Slavic Research Group at the University of Ottawa, ISBN 0-88927-276-X.
- Holt, Simma (1964), Terror in the Name of God: The story of the Sons of Freedom Doukhobors, Toronto/Montreal: McClelland & Stewart.
- Janzen, William (1990), Limits on Liberty: The Experience of Mennonite, Hutterite, and Doukhobor Communities in Canada, Toronto: U of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-2731-8.
- Kalmakoff, Jonathan. "The Hyas Doukhobour Settlement", Saskatchewan History (2007) 59#2 pp 27–34. covers 1902 to 1907.
- Livanov, Feodor Vasilyevich, Early Dukhabors Archived February 19, 2022, at the ISBN 978-1-300-34255-7
- Makarova, V (2013), Doukhobor nudism: exploring the socio-cultural roots. Culture and Religion.
- ——— (February 1–29, 2012), The use of Russian in contemporary Doukhobor prayer service Актуальные проблемы филологии и методики преподавания иностранных языков [Current issues in philology and methods of teaching foreign languages], International scientific research Internet conference, Novosibirsk, Russia, archived from the original on December 4, 2012, retrieved June 18, 2012
- Makarova, VA; Usenkova, EV; Evdokimova, VV; Evgrafova, KV (2011), "The Language of Saskatchewan Doukhobors: Introduction to analysis. Izvestija Vysshix uchebnyx zavedenij [The News of Higher Schools]. Serija Gumanitarnyje nauki [Humanities]. Razdel Lingvistika [Linguistics section]", Philology & Linguistics, 2 (2), RU: ISUCT: 146–51, archived from the original on March 16, 2016, retrieved June 18, 2012.
- Maude, Aylmer (1905), A Peculiar People: the Doukhobors, Constable, London.
- Mealing, Francis Mark (1975), Doukhobor Life: A Survey of Doukhobor Religion, History, & Folklife, Kootenay Doukhobor Historical Society.
- Morrell, Kathy. "The Life of Peter P. Verigin." Saskatchewan History (2009) 61#1 pp 26–32. covers 1928 to 1939.
- O'Neail, Hazel (1994), Doukhobor Daze, Surrey, BC: Heritage House, ISBN 1-895811-22-8.
- Rak, Julie (2004), Negotiated Memory: Doukhobor Autobiographical Discourse, Vancouver: UBC Press, ISBN 0-7748-1030-0.
- Rozinkin, W. M. The Doukhobor Saga. [Nelson, B.C.: News Publishing Co.], 1974.
- Schaarschmidt, G. 2012. Russian language history in Canada. Doukhobor internal and external migrations: effects on language development and structure. In: V. Makarova (Ed), Russian Language Studies in North America: the New Perspectives from Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. London/New York: Anthem Press.pp 235–260. www.anthempress.com
- Sorokin, Stephan Sebastian, and Steve Lapshinoff. Doukhobor Problem. Crescent Valley, B.C.: Steve Lapshinoff, 1990.
- Tarasoff, Koozma J (1977), Traditional Doukhobor Folkways: An Ethnographic and Biographic Record of Prescribed Behaviour, Mercury, Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.
- Tracie, Carl. Toil and Peaceful Life: Doukhobor Village Settlement in Saskatchewan, 1899–1918. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1996. ISBN 0-88977-100-6
- Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ. Hospitality: Vegetarian Cooking the Doukhobor Way. Grand Forks, B.C.: USCC Centennial Cookbook Committee, 2003. ISBN 0-9732514-0-9
- Woodsworth, John. Russian Roots and Canadian Wings: Russian Archival Documents on the Doukhobor Emigration to Canada. Canada/Russia series, v. 1. [Manotick, Ont.]: Penumbra Press, 1999. ISBN 0-921254-89-X
- Shulgan, Christopher (June 12, 2008). "How the Doukhobors brought democracy to the USSR". The Walrus. Archived from the original on September 19, 2021. Retrieved September 19, 2021.
External links
- Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ (USCC) — Doukhobors
- Doukhobor Heritage - the oldest, largest and most comprehensive website about Doukhobors.
- Doukhobor Heritage website (Doukhobor genealogy and history), Canada"
- "Explosion on the Kettle Valley Line: The Death of Peter Verigin", Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History
- Doukhobor Discovery Centre, Castlegar, British Columbia.
- Ivan Sysoev, archived from the original on April 3, 2005, prolific and well-known Doukhobor poet and hymnist..
- "The Doukhobors Arrive in Canada", The Canadian Encyclopedia