Columbidae
Columbidae Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
Pink-necked green pigeon | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Clade: | Columbimorphae |
Order: | Columbiformes Latham, 1790 |
Family: | Columbidae Leach, 1819 |
Type genus | |
Columba Linnaeus, 1758
| |
Subfamilies | |
See text | |
Geographic range of the family |
Columbidae (
Columbidae contains 344
Mostly only by English speakers, the smaller species tend to be called "doves", and the larger ones "pigeons",[3] although the distinction is not consistent,[3] and there is no scientific separation between them.[4] Historically, the common names for these birds involve a great deal of variation. The bird most commonly referred to as "pigeon" is the domestic pigeon, or rock dove, which is common in many cities as the feral pigeon.
Doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests, often using sticks and other debris, which may be placed on branches of trees, on ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. They lay one or (usually) two white eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce "crop milk" to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop.
Unfledged baby doves and pigeons are called squabs and are generally able to fly by 5 weeks of age. These fledglings, with their immature squeaking voices, are called squeakers once they are weaned,[5] and leave the nest after 25–32 days.
Since ancient times, many Columbidae species have developed intricate cultural and practical relations with humans.
Etymology
Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pīpiō, for a "peeping" chick,[6] while dove is an ultimately Germanic word that refers to the bird's diving flight.[7] The English dialectal word culver appears to derive from Latin columba.[6] A group of doves is called a "dule", taken from the French word deuil ('mourning').[8]
Origin and evolution
Columbiformes is one of the most diverse non-
Taxonomy and systematics
The name 'Columbidae' for the
The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately.[16] For example, the American ground and quail doves (Geotrygon), which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies.[a] The order presented here follows Baptista et al. (1997),[17] with some updates.[18][19][20]
The arrangement of genera and naming of subfamilies is in some cases provisional because analyses of different
The family Columbidae previously also contained the family
These taxonomic issues are exacerbated by columbids not being well represented in the
List of genera
Fossil species of uncertain placement:
- Genus †Arenicolumba Steadman, 2008
- Genus †Rupephaps Worthy, Hand, Worthy, Tennyson, & Scofield, 2009 (St. Bathans pigeon, Miocene of New Zealand)
Subfamily Columbinae (typical pigeons and doves)
- Tribe Zenaidini [Leptotilinae] (quail-doves and allies)
- Genus Geotrygon (10 species)
- Genus Starnoenas (blue-headed quail-dove)
- Genus Leptotrygon (olive-backed quail-dove)
- Genus Leptotila (11 species)
- Genus Zenaida (7 species)
- Genus Zentrygon (8 species)
- Tribe Columbini
- Genus Patagioenas (American pigeons, 17 species)
- Genus †Ectopistes(passenger pigeon; extinct 1914)
- Genus Reinwardtoena (3 species)
- Genus Turacoena (3 species)
- Genus Macropygia (typical cuckoo-doves, 15 species)
- Genus Streptopelia (turtle doves and collared doves, 13 species)
- Genus †Dysmoropelia Olson, 1975 (Saint Helena dove) (prehistoric)
- Genus extinct)
- Genus Spilopelia (2 species)
- Genus Nesoenas (3 species)
Subfamily Claravinae (American ground doves)
- Genus Claravis(blue ground dove)
- Genus Paraclaravis (2 species)
- Genus Uropelia (long-tailed ground dove)
- Genus Metriopelia (4 species)
- Genus Columbina(9 species)
Raphinae
- Tribe Phabini (bronzewings and relatives)
- Genus Henicophaps (2 species)
- Genus Gallicolumba (bleeding-hearts and allies, 7 species)
- Genus Pampusana (13 species of which 3 recently extinct)
- Genus Ocyphaps (crested pigeon)
- Genus Petrophassa (rock pigeons, 2 species)
- Genus Leucosarcia (wonga pigeon)
- Genus Geopelia (5 species)
- Genus Phaps (Australian bronzewings, 3 species)
- Genus Geophaps (3 species)
- Tribe Raphini [Didunculinae; Otidiphabinae; Gourinae]
- Genus ?†prehistoric)
- Genus Trugon (thick-billed ground pigeon)
- Genus †Choiseul crested pigeon, extinct early 20th century)
- Genus Otidiphaps (pheasant pigeon)
- Genus Goura(crowned pigeons, 4 species)
- Genus Didunculus (tooth-billed pigeon)
- Genus ?†Deliaphaps De Pietri, Scofield, Tennyson, Hand, & Worthy, 2017 (Zealandian dove, Miocene of New Zealand)
- Genus Caloenas (Nicobar pigeon)
- Genus †Raphus (dodo, extinct late 17th century)
- Genus †Pezophaps (Rodrigues solitaire, extinct c. 1730)
- Genus †prehistoric)
- Genus ?†
- Tribe Turturini
- Genus Phapitreron(brown doves, 3 species)
- Genus Oena (Namaqua dove, tentatively placed here)
- Genus Turtur (wood doves, 5 species; tentatively placed here)
- Genus Chalcophaps (emerald doves, 3 species)
- Genus
- Tribe Treronini
- Genus Treron (green pigeons, 30 species)
- Genus
- Tribe Ptilinopini (fruit doves and imperial pigeons)
- Genus Ducula(imperial pigeons, 42 species)
- Genus Alectroenas] (fruit doves, some 50 living species, 1–2 recently extinct)
- Genus Hemiphaga (2 species)
- Genus Lopholaimus (topknot pigeon)
- Genus Cryptophaps (sombre pigeon)
- Genus Gymnophaps(mountain pigeons, 4 species)
- Genus ?†prehistoric)
- Genus
Description
Size and appearance
Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from 15 to 75 centimetres (5.9 to 29.5 in), and in weight from 30 g (0.066 lb) to above 2,000 g (4.4 lb).
Anatomy and physiology
Overall, the
The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers;[38] pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight[39]) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.[38]
In a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr. Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant.[40] It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr. Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.[41]
Feathers
Columbidae have unique body feathers, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly.[38] In general, the aftershaft is absent; however, small ones on some tail and wing feathers may be present.[42] Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into the skin, and drop out easily.[43] Possibly serving as a predator avoidance mechanism,[44] large numbers of feathers fall out in the attacker's mouth if the bird is snatched, facilitating the bird's escape. The plumage of the family is variable.[45]
Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage.[17] The Ptilinopus (fruit doves) are some of the brightest coloured pigeons, with the three endemic species of Fiji and the Indian Ocean Alectroenas being the brightest. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic.[46] In addition to bright colours, pigeons may sport crests or other ornamentation.[47]
Flight
Columbidae are excellent fliers due to the lift provided by their large wings, which results in low wing loading;[48] They are highly maneuverable in flight[49] and have a low aspect ratio due to the width of their wings, allowing for quick flight launches and ability to escape from predators, but at a high energy cost.[50]
Distribution and habitat
Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, except for the driest areas of the
in the Atlantic Ocean.The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet. These species may be arboreal, terrestrial, or semi-terrestrial. Various species also inhabit savanna, grassland, desert, temperate woodland and forest, mangrove forest, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls.[51]
Some species have large natural ranges. The eared dove ranges across the entirety of South America from Colombia to Tierra del Fuego,[52] the Eurasian collared dove has a massive (if discontinuous) distribution from Britain across Europe, the Middle East, India, Pakistan and China,[53] and the laughing dove across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as India, Pakistan, and the Middle East.[54]
The largest range of any species is that of the
As well as the rock dove, several other species of pigeon have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity, and other species have increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes caused by human activity.[17] A 2020 study found that the East Coast of the U.S. includes two pigeon genetic megacities, in New York and Boston, and observes that the birds do not mix together.[56]
Other species of columbidae have tiny, restricted distributions, usually seen on small islands, such as the
Some continental species also have tiny distributions, such as the black-banded fruit dove, which is restricted to a small area of the Arnhem Land of Australia,[60] the Somali pigeon, found only in a tiny area of northern Somalia,[61] and Moreno's ground dove, endemic to the area around Salta and Tucuman in northern Argentina.[17]
Behaviour
Feeding
Seeds and fruit form the major component of the diets of pigeons and doves, and
The granivorous species typically feed on seed found on the ground, whereas the frugivorous species tend to feed in trees.[63] The morphological adaptations used to distinguish between the two groups include granivores tending to having thick walls in their gizzards, intestines, and esophagi, with the frugivores evolved with thin walls,[30] and the fruit-eating species have short intestines, as opposed to the seed eaters having longer intestines.[64] Frugivores are capable of clinging to branches and even hang upside down to reach fruit.[17][63]
In addition to fruit and seeds, a number of other food items are taken by many species. Some, particularly the ground doves and quail-doves, eat a large number of prey items such as insects and worms.[63] One species, the atoll fruit dove, is specialised in taking insect and reptile prey.[63] Snails, moths, and other insects are taken by white-crowned pigeons, orange fruit doves, and ruddy ground doves.[17]
Urban feral pigeons, descendants of domestic rock doves (Columbia Livia), reside in urban environments, disturbing their natural feeding habits. They depend on human activities and interactions to obtain food, causing them to forage for spilled food or food provided by humans.[65]
Status and conservation
While many species of pigeons and doves have benefited from human activities and have increased their ranges, many other species have declined in numbers and some have become
The passenger pigeon was exceptional for a number of reasons. In modern times, it is the only pigeon species that was not an island species to have become extinct[66] even though it was once the most numerous species of bird on Earth.[citation needed] Its former numbers are difficult to estimate, but one ornithologist, Alexander Wilson, estimated one flock he observed contained over two billion birds.[67] The decline of the species was abrupt; in 1871, a breeding colony was estimated to contain over a hundred million birds, yet the last individual in the species was dead by 1914.[68] Although habitat loss was a contributing factor, the species is thought to have been massively over-hunted, being used as food for slaves and, later, the poor, in the United States throughout the 19th century.[citation needed]
The dodo, and its extinction, was more typical of the extinctions of pigeons in the past. Like many species that colonise remote islands with few predators, it lost much of its predator avoidance behaviour, along with its ability to fly.[69] The arrival of people, along with a suite of other introduced species such as rats, pigs, and cats, quickly spelled the end for this species and all the other island forms that have become extinct.[69]
Around 59 species of pigeons and doves are threatened with extinction today, about 19% of all species.
Various
Military
The pigeon was used in both World War I and World War II, notably by the Australian, French, German, American, and UK forces. They were also awarded for their service with various laurels throughout. On 2 December 1943, three pigeons – Winkie, Tyke, and White Vision, – serving with Britain's Royal Air Force, were awarded the first Dickin medal for rescuing an air force crew during World War II.[75] Thirty-two pigeons have been decorated with the Dickin Medal, citing their "brave service"[76] in war contributions, including Commando, G.I. Joe,[77] Paddy, Royal Blue, and William of Orange.[citation needed]
A grand ceremony was held in Buckingham Palace to commemorate a platoon of pigeons that braved the battlefields of Normandy to deliver vital plans to Allied forces on the fringes of Germany.[80] Three of the actual birds that received the medals are on show in the London Military Museum[clarification needed] so that well-wishers can pay their respects.[80] In Brussels, there is a monument commemorating pigeons that served in World War I, the Monument au Pigeon-Soldat .
Domestication
The
In religion
In ancient Mesopotamia, doves were prominent animal symbols of Inanna-Ishtar, the goddess of love, sexuality, and war.[87][88] Doves are shown on cultic objects associated with Inanna as early as the beginning of the third millennium BC.[87] Lead dove figurines were discovered in the temple of Ishtar at Aššur, dating to the thirteenth century BC,[87] and a painted fresco from Mari, Syria, shows a giant dove emerging from a palm tree in the temple of Ishtar,[88] indicating that the goddess herself was sometimes believed to take the form of a dove.[88] In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and a raven to find land; the dove merely circles and returns.[89] Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.[89]
In the
In the Hebrew Bible, doves or young pigeons are acceptable burnt offerings for those who cannot afford a more expensive animal.[94] In Genesis, Noah sends a dove out of the ark, but it came back to him because the floodwaters had not receded. Seven days later, he sent it again and it came back with an olive branch in her mouth, indicating the waters had receded enough for an olive tree to grow. "Dove" is also a term of endearment in the Song of Songs and elsewhere. In Hebrew, Jonah (יוֹנָה) means dove.[95] The "sign of Jonas" in [1] is related to the "sign of the dove".[96]
In
As food
Several species of pigeons and doves are used as food; however, all types are edible.
In Europe, the
List of monuments depicting pigeons
There are many public monuments on planet Earth devoted to and depicting pigeons.
Name | Location | Year dedicated | Information | Image | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Passenger Pigeon Monument | Wyalusing State Park, Wisconsin, USA | 1948 | The plaque on this conservationist statue's inscription reads: "DEDICATED TO THE LAST PASSENGER PIGEON Shot at Babcock, Sept. 1899. This Species Became Extinct Through the Avarice and Thoughtlessness of Man."[102] It honors the passenger pigeon, which had once perhaps been the most numerous bird on the planet before going extinct in 1914, largely due to unregulated hunting and habitat destruction committed by European settlers of North America.[103] | ||
Monument voor de Oorlogsduif | Brussels, Belgium |
1931 | This metal statue, designed by Georges Hano and sculpted by Victor Voets, honors the at the 1931 dedication ceremony of this statute said that carrier pigeons perhaps made the greatest and most painful contribution to the victory and liberation of Belgium during the First World War. The metal statue depicts a pigeon landing on a topless woman's outstretched arm. | ||
Monument to Carrier Pigeons | Lille, France |
1936 | This stone monument depicts a woman flocked by birds, erected in honor of the approximately tens of thousands of birds who served as carrier pigeons or otherwise served the Triple Entente during World War I. The statue is in front of the Lille Zoo. It was erected by the édération Nationale des Sociétés Colombophiles (National Federation of Pigeon Societies).[106] |
||
Hato Poppo monument | Tokyo, Japan |
1962 | This is one of multiple statues dedicated to the beloved Japanese children's song, "Hato Poppo". The words of the song were written by Kume Higashi while watching children play with pigeons at the Buddhist Sensō-ji temple in Tokyo, near where this statue now is. A plaque on the monument includes the musical notation of the song. Atop the monument, five bronze pigeons are perched.[107] | ||
Monument au Pigeon-Soldat | Charleroi, Belgium | 1951 | A depiction of a bird with outstretched wings honors the pigeon soldiers of World War I.[108] The sculptor was Alphonse Darville . | ||
Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut | Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, Ohio, USA | A memorial specifically to Martha, the last known passenger pigeon who died at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914, is housed in a Japanese pagoda-style building on zoo's grounds. Inside the building is artwork depicting the passenger pigeon. A bronze Martha is outside the memorial.[109] |
See also
- Doves as symbols
- Gamasoidosis
- Homing pigeon
- List of Columbidae species
- Marquesan imperial pigeon
- Pigeon control
- War pigeon
- Rajakapotasana, yoga poses named for columbidae
Notes
- monotypicsubfamilies were noted, one each for the genera Goura, Otidiphaps, and Didunculus. The old subfamily Columbinae consisted of five distinct lineages, whereas the other four groups are more or less accurate representations of the evolutionary relationships.
References
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The earliest dove yet known, from the early Miocene (Aquitanian) of France, was a small species named Columba calcaria by Milne-Edwards (1867–1871) from a single humerus, for which Lambrecht (1933) later created the genus Gerandia
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Further reading
- Blechman, Andrew, Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World's Most Revered and Reviled Bird (ISBN 978-0-8021-4328-0
- Gibbs, Barnes and Cox, Pigeons and Doves (Pica Press 2001) ISBN 1-873403-60-7
External links
- Columbidae.org.uk Conservation of pigeons and doves
- Dove videos on the Internet Bird Collection
- The differences between doves & pigeons
- Pigeon Fact Sheet from the National Pest Management Association with information on habits, habitat and health threats
- "Pigeon breeds: from the NPA Standard – Table of Contents by Groups". NPAUSA.org. American National Pigeon Association. 2014.
- "British Pigeon Show Society Hall of Fame, Show Categories and Trophies". Showpigeons. British Pigeon Show Society. 2014.
- "List of the Breeds of Fancy Pigeons" (PDF). Entente Européenne d'Áviculture et de Cuniculture. 1 October 2009.
- The Complete Guide To Pigeons (Columbidae)