Dravidian architecture

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Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu
Vijayanagara style architecture characterized by Yali pillars at Sri Kalyana Ramaswamy temple in Thenkaraikottai, Ramaiyampati.
Ramappa temple in Palampeta

Dravidian architecture, or the Southern Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from Southern India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century.

In contrast with North Indian temple styles, Dravidian architecture uses shorter and more pyramidal towers, called

gopura or gatehouse entrances to the compound as their dominating feature; large temples have several dwarfing the vimana, although these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features, such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha
.

Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in early texts on

Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire
among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravida architecture.

History

Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts, which are estimated to have been in circulation by 5th to 7th century CE, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of

vedic in origin[9] and have been dated either as post-vedic texts[10] or as pre-vedic compositions.[11] The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[12]

Composition and structure

Chola style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:[13]

  1. The porches or Mandapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.
  2. Gate-pyramids, Gopuras, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. Gopuras are very common in Dravidian temples.
  3. Pillared halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.[13]

Influence from different periods

Stone vel on a brick platform at the entrance to the Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam, Tamil Nadu, 300 BCE-300 CE[14][15]

In Southern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times:

Sangam period

From 300 BCE to 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the

Kallazhagar Temple
date from the Sangam period.

Pallavas

Main article: Pallava art and architecture
Chennai Parthasarathy Perumal Temple is One of the oldest temples of Pallavas dating early 500 CE[17]
The rock-cut Shore Temple of the temples in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu,Dated between 700-728 CE

The

Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now located in Tamil Nadu
.

The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut

Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, including the Shore Temple. This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II
also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple.

Contrary to popular impression about the succeeding empire of the Cholas pioneering in building large temple complexes, it was the Pallavas who actually pioneered not only in making large temples after starting construction of rock cut temples without using mortar, bricks etc. Examples of such temples are the Thiruppadagam and Thiruooragam temples that have 28 and 35 feet (11 m) high images of Lord Vishnu in his manifestation as Pandavadhoothar and Trivikraman forms of himself. In comparison, the Siva Lingams in the Royal Temples of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapurams are 17 and 18 feet (5.5 m) high. Considering that the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in India to build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols Many of

Kanchi built by the great Pallava emperors and indeed their incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance Bas Relief (also called descent of the Ganga) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The continuous Chola, Pallava and Pandiyan belt temples (along with those of the Adigaimans near Karur and Namakkal) like the Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal, as well as the Sathyamurthi Perumal Temple
in Pudukottai uniformly represent the pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and Kanyakumari. In the Telugu country the style was more or less uniformly conforming to the South Indian or Dravidian idiom of architecture.

Kakatiya architecture

Main article: Kakatiya architecture
Profile of a Ramappa Temple

Kakatiya architecture was a notable

Hanamakonda — their first capital and Warangal being their second capital.[18]
: 128–140 

Most of the Kakatiya architecture is influenced from

Hanamakonda and Warangal of which Thousand Pillar Temple, Ramappa Temple, Ramappa Lake, Warangal Fort and Kota Gullu are prominent.[18] Ramappa Temple, also known as the Rudreswara temple, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Mulugu.[19]

Badami Chalukyas

Main article:
Badami Chalukya Architecture
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka
built in 740

The Badami

Malaprabha
basin.

The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the

Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.[20]

The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami, Aihole and Mahakuta are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them.[21][22] This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.

Rashtrakutas

Ellora

The

Kailasanatha temple), in the rock-cut architecture idiom, with a style showing influences from both north and south India. Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple at Pattadakal
and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka.

The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day

Parvathi
while the ceilings have paintings.

These projects were commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.[23]

Western Chalukyas

Main article: Western Chalukya architecture
Doddabasappa Temple, Dambal, Gadag district, Karnataka

The

Tungabhadra doab
in central Karnataka. The Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects.

The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of architecture in the

Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.[26]
Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.

Pandya

Main article: Pandyan art and architecture
Srivilliputhur Andal temple

Srivilliputtur is a 12-tiered tower structure dedicated to the Lord of Srivilliputtur, known as Vatapatrasayee. The tower of this temple rises 192 feet (59 m) high. Other significant temples of the Pandyas include the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, which is the official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu
.

Cholas

Main article: Chola art and architecture
Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple-Tamil Nadu

The

UNESCO World Heritage Site) and the Kampaheswarar Temple at Thirubuvanam
.

The

Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first king Vijayalaya Chola
after whom the eclectic chain of Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near Narttamalai exists. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions.

A Dravidian architecture style pillar in Airavatesvara temple, Darasuram, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu.

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of

Chola
emperors.

Contrary to popular impression, the Chola emperors patronized and promoted construction of a large number of temples that were spread over most parts of the Chola empire. These include 40 of the 108 Vaishnava

Natarajar Temple
(though originally built by the Pallavas but possibly seized from the Cholas of the pre-Christian era when they ruled from Kanchi) were two of the most important temples patronized and expanded by the Cholas and from the times of the second Chola King Aditya I, these two temples have been hailed in inscriptions as the tutelary deities of the Chola Kings.

Brihadeeswarar Temple (11th century), Tanjore has a vimana tower that is 216 ft (66 m) high, a classical example of Dravidian architecture. and The sikhara, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons.[28][29]

Temple shrine on the

Chidambaram's expansion that escalated the building of those syncretic latter styles of Dravidian architecture seen across the continent pictured.[30][31][32][33]

Of course, the two

World Heritage Sites, which will elevate them to the exacting and exalting standards of the Great Living Chola Temples
.

The temple of

Rajendra Chola I, was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.[34] This temple has a larger Siva linga than the one at Thanjavur but the Vimana of this temple is smaller in height than the Thanjavur
vimana.

The

Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.[35]

Hoysalas

Symmetrical architecture on Jagati, Somanathapura, Karnataka
Main article: Hoysala architecture

The

Kesava Temple in Somanathapura
.

The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,[36] shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida,[37] and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.[38][39]

Vijayanagara

Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, Karnataka
Main article:
Vijayanagara Architecture

The whole of

Krishna Deva Raya and others built many famous temples all over South India
in Vijayanagara Architecture style.

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the

Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.[40][41] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[42]

In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later incorporated dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture.[43] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.[44] At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished example.[45] A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty.[46] A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.[47]

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Portal:Dravidian civilizations

Kerala

Main article: Architecture of Kerala

The version of Dravidian architecture found in Kerala in the far south-west is significantly different. Very large temples are rare, and sloping roofs with projecting eaves dominate the outline, often arranged in a number of tiers. As in Bengal, this is an adaption to the heavy monsoon rainfall. There is usually a stone core below a timber superstructure. The architecture of Kerala goes back to the Chera dynasty in the 12th century, and a variety of ground plans have been used, including circular ones. The development of multi-building complexes came relatively late.[48]

Sri Lanka

The culture of Sri Lanka is

ruins of Jaffna kingdom
.

From the 18th century, Dravidian architecture was heavily adopted by Tamil-speaking populations of Sri Lanka for the construction of Hindu religious sites.[50]

  • The Nalanda Gedige, a Buddhist temple built between the 8th and 10th centuries, in a predominant Pallava style Dravidian architecture.
    The Nalanda Gedige, a Buddhist temple built between the 8th and 10th centuries, in a predominant Pallava style Dravidian architecture.
  • The second Shiva Devale (Shiva temple) of Polonnaruwa, built under the Chola occupation period in 10th century.
    The second Shiva Devale (Shiva temple) of Polonnaruwa, built under the Chola occupation period in 10th century.
  • The Lankatilaka Vihara, a 14th-century building influenced by Dravidian architecture, designed and involving an architect and craftsmen from South India.
    The Lankatilaka Vihara, a 14th-century building influenced by Dravidian architecture, designed and involving an architect and craftsmen from South India.
  • The Devale aside Gadaladeniya Vihara main shrine, built under the Gampola period, with South Indian architect and craftsmen.
    The Devale aside
    Gampola period
    , with South Indian architect and craftsmen.
  • Yamuna Eri, a 15th-century pond in Nallur.
    Nallur
    .
  • Mantri Manai, the remains of the minister's quarters of Jaffna Kingdom. It is built in a Euro-Dravidian style.[51]
    Jaffna Kingdom. It is built in a Euro-Dravidian style.[51]
  • Corridor of Naguleswaram Temple
    Corridor of
    Naguleswaram Temple
  • Nallur Kandaswamy temple front entrance
    Nallur Kandaswamy temple front entrance
  • Raja Gopuram of Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple.
    Raja Gopuram of Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple.

See also

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References

  1. ^ Fergusson, James (1864). The Rock-cut Temples of India: Illustrated by Seventy-four Photographs Taken on the Spot by Major Gill. J. Murray.
  2. ISBN 978-0-470-02827-8
    .
  3. ^
    ISBN 81-208-0223-3
  4. ^ Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s. South Asian Studies, 13(1), pp 87-97
  5. OCLC 71801033
  6. JSTOR 3249613
    .
  7. ISBN 978-0304707393
    , Bloomsbury Academic, pp 121-125
  8. ^ H Kern (1865), The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara, The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta
  9. ^ Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
  10. ISBN 978-81-87746-04-1
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  11. ^ Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications. [1]
  12. ISBN 9780791430682. LCCN 96012383. [2]
  13. ^ a b Fergusson, James (1997) [1910]. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Low Price Publications. p. 309.
  14. ^ N. Subramanian (21 September 2005). "Remains of ancient temple found". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012.
  15. ^ N. Ramya (1 August 2010). "New finds of old temples enthuse archaeologists". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012.
  16. ISBN 9788170170969
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  17. ISBN 81-250-2800-5
    .
  18. ^
    ISBN 9788121210225
    . Retrieved 14 October 2021.
  19. ISSN 0971-751X
    . Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  20. ^ Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone, Michael D. Gunther, 2002. "Monuments of India". Retrieved 10 November 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka – Chalukyas of Badami". 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  22. ^ The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace said art critic K.V. Sounderrajan. They have influenced the architecture in Vengi and Gujarat- Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p68
  23. ^ Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 20 September 1996". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  24. ^ An important period in the development of Indian art (Kamath 2001, p115)
  25. ^ Arthikaje. "History of Karnataka – Chalukyas of Kalyani". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  26. ^ Kannikeswaran. "Temples of Karnataka, Kalyani Chalukyan temples". [email protected],1996–2006. Retrieved 16 December 2006.
  27. ^ See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, pp 421
  28. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 18–21.
  29. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". Archaeological Survey of India.
  30. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri
    , A History of South India, pp 424–426
  31. ^ Karen Schreitmuller (2012). Baedeker India, pp. 90
  32. ^ Perniola, V. "The Catholic church in Sri Lanka. The Portuguese period", vol. II, p. 366.
  33. ^ Bastin, Rohan. The domain of constant excess : plural worship at the Munnesvaram temples in Sri Lanka. pp. 114
  34. ^ Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram (1970)
  35. ^ The bronze image of nataraja at the Nagesvara Temple in Kumbakonam is the largest image known.
  36. ^ James Fergusson and Henry Cousens write that the Hoysala style has many features in common with that of the Western Chalukya, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  37. ^ Adam Hardy. "Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries, 1995". Vedams Books from India, Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  38. Percy Brown
    writes that the Hoysala style has negligible influences on the Indo-Aryan style and owing to its many independent features, qualifies as an independent school of architecture, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, 2001, Jupiter books, MCC, (Reprinted 2002), p134
  39. ^ Havell, R. Narasimhachar, M. Sheshadri and S. Settar also claim their style is an independent tradition, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  40. ^ Art critic, Percy Brown calls Vijayanagar architecture a blossoming of Dravidian style, Kamath, p182
  41. ^ Arthikaje Literary Activity}
  42. ^ "So intimate are the rocks and the monuments they were used for make, it was sometimes impossible to say where nature ended and art began" (Art critic Percy Brown, quoted in Hampi, A Travel Guide, p64)
  43. ^ Fritz & Mitchell, p9
  44. ^ Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in Kamath (2001), p183
  45. ^ "Drama in stone" wrote art critic Percy Brown, much of the beauty of Vijayanagara architecture came from their pillars and piers and the styles of sculpting (Hampi, A Travel Guide, p77)
  46. ^ About the sculptures in Vijayanagara style, see Kamath (2001), p184
  47. ^ Several monuments are categorised as Tuluva art (Fritz & Mitchell 2001, p9)
  48. ^ Michell, 155-158
  49. ^ "Traditional buildings of Jaffna".
  50. OCLC 31012650
    .
  51. ^ "The Nallur Rajadhani".

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