Drug prohibition

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration agents in a training exercise

The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary legislation or religious law is a common means of attempting to prevent the recreational use of certain intoxicating substances.

An area has a prohibition of drugs when its government uses the force of law to punish the use or possession of drugs which have been classified as illegal. A government may simultaneously have systems in place to regulate both illegal and legal drugs. Regulation controls the manufacture, distribution, marketing, sale, and use of certain drugs, for instance through a prescription system. For example, in some states, the possession or sale of amphetamines is a crime unless a patient has a physician's perscription for the drug; having a prescription authorizes a pharmacy to sell and a patient to use a drug that would otherwise be prohibited. Although prohibition mostly concerns psychoactive drugs (which affect mental processes such as perception, cogntion, and mood), prohibition can also apply to non-psychoactive drugs, such as anabolic steroids. Many governments do not criminalize the possession of a limited quantity of certain drugs for personal use, while still prohibiting their sale or manufacture, or possession in large quantities. Some laws (or judicial practice) set a specific volume of a particular drug, above which is considered ipso jure to be evidence of trafficking or sale of the drug.[citation needed]

Some Islamic countries prohibit the use of

only arrived two decades later, in 1912.

Definitions

Drugs, in the context of prohibition, are any of a number of

pharmaceutical drugs or just pharmaceuticals. The use of medicine to save or extend life or to alleviate suffering is uncontroversial in most cultures. Prohibition applies to certain conditions of possession or use. Recreational use refers to the use of substances primarily for their psychoactive effect outside of a clinical situation
or doctor's care.

In the twenty-first century, caffeine has pharmaceutical uses. Caffeine is used to treat bronchopulmonary dysplasia. In most cultures, caffeine in the form of coffee or tea is unregulated. Over 2.25 billion cups of coffee are consumed in the world every day.[4] Some religions, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, prohibit coffee.[5] They believe that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.[6]

A government's interest to control a drug may be based on its negative effects on its users, or it may simply have a revenue interest. The British parliament prohibited the possession of untaxed tea with the imposition of the Tea Act of 1773. In this case, as in many others, it is not a substance that is prohibited, but the conditions under which it is possessed or consumed. Those conditions include matters of intent, which makes the enforcement of laws difficult. In Colorado possession of "blenders, bowls, containers, spoons, and mixing devices" is illegal if there was intent to use them with drugs.[citation needed]

Many drugs, beyond their pharmaceutical and recreational uses, have industrial uses. Nitrous oxide, or laughing gas is a dental anesthetic, also used to prepare whipped cream, fuel rocket engines, and enhance the performance of race cars. Ethanol, or drinking alcohol, is also used as a fuel, industrial solvent and disinfectant.

History

The cultivation, use, and trade of

War on Drugs
".

Early drug laws

Huichol religion worshiped the god of Peyote
, a drug.

The prohibition on

Sufis were conducted in Egypt in the 11th and 12th centuries resulting among other things in the burning of fields of cannabis.[citation needed
]

Though the prohibition of

mental derangement, should remain exempt [from punishment]". In the 14th century, the Islamic scholar Az-Zarkashi spoke of "the permissibility of its use for medical purposes if it is established that it is beneficial".[7]

A painting of opium ships sailing into China. Chinese attempts to suppress opium smuggling sparked the First Opium War.

In the

Coffee Cantata, from the 1730s, presents a vigorous debate between a girl and her father over her desire to consume coffee. The early association between coffeehouses and seditious political activities in England led to the banning of such establishments in the mid-17th century.[9]

A number of Asian rulers had similarly enacted early prohibitions, many of which were later forcefully overturned by Western colonial powers during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1360, for example, King

intoxicants and stimulants during the reign of King Bodawpaya (1781–1819). After Burma became a British colony, the restrictions on opium were abolished and the colonial government established monopolies selling Indian-produced opium.[10]

In late

Southern China. Between 1821 and 1837, imports of the drug increased fivefold. The wealth drain and widespread social problems that resulted from this consumption prompted the Chinese government to attempt to end the trade. This effort was initially successful, with Lin Zexu ordering the destruction of opium at Humen in June 1839. However, the opium traders lobbied the British government to declare war on China, resulting in the First Opium War. The Qing government was defeated and the war ended with the Treaty of Nanking, which legalized opium trading in Chinese law[11]

First modern drug regulations

Papaver somniferum. The sale of drugs in the UK was regulated by the Pharmacy Act of 1868.

The first modern law in Europe for the regulating of drugs was the Pharmacy Act 1868 in the United Kingdom. There had been previous moves to establish the medical and pharmaceutical professions as separate, self-regulating bodies, but the General Medical Council, established in 1863, unsuccessfully attempted to assert control over drug distribution.[12] The Act set controls on the distribution of poisons and drugs. Poisons could only be sold if the purchaser was known to the seller or to an intermediary known to both, and drugs, including opium and all preparations of opium or of poppies, had to be sold in containers with the seller's name and address.[13] Despite the reservation of opium to professional control, general sales did continue to a limited extent, with mixtures with less than 1 percent opium being unregulated.

After the legislation passed, the death rate caused by opium immediately fell from 6.4 per million population in 1868 to 4.5 in 1869. Deaths among children under five dropped from 20.5 per million population between 1863 and 1867 to 12.7 per million in 1871 and further declined to between 6 and 7 per million in the 1880s.[14]

In the United States, the first drug law was passed in

racial discrimination as it was based on the form in which it was ingested: Chinese immigrants tended to smoke it, while it was often included in various kinds of generally liquid medicines often (but not exclusively) used by Americans of European descent. The laws targeted opium smoking, but not other methods of ingestion.[15]

Britain passed the All-India Opium Act of 1878, which limited recreational opium sales to registered Indian opium-eaters and Chinese opium-smokers and prohibiting its sale to emigrant workers from British Burma.[16]

Following the passage of a regional law in 1895, Australia's 1897 Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act addressed opium addiction among Aborigines, though it soon became a general vehicle for depriving them of basic rights by administrative regulation. Opium sale was prohibited to the general population in 1905, and smoking and possession were prohibited in 1908.[17]

Despite these laws, the late 19th century saw an increase in opiate consumption. This was due to the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacists to relieve menstruation pain. It is estimated that between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States at the time, and a majority of these addicts were women.[18]

Changing attitudes and the drug prohibition campaign

Royal Opium Commission
in 1893 to investigate the opium trade and make recommendations on its legality.

Foreign traders, including those employed by

Arthur E. Moule, Arthur Gostick Shorrock and Griffith John, agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of Anti-Opium Societies.[19]

Due to increasing pressure in the

Royal Commission on Opium to India in 1893.[20][21] The commission was tasked with ascertaining the impact of Indian opium exports to the Far East, and to advise whether the trade should be banned and opium consumption itself banned in India. After an extended inquiry, the Royal Commission rejected the claims made by the anti-opium campaigners regarding the supposed societal harm caused by the trade and the issue was finalized for another 15 years.[22][23]

The missionary organizations were outraged over the

China Inland Mission, Benjamin Broomhall, was an active opponent of the opium trade, writing two books to promote the banning of opium smoking: The Truth about Opium Smoking and The Chinese Opium Smoker. In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Severance of the British Empire with the Opium Traffic and editor of its periodical, National Righteousness. He lobbied the British parliament to ban the opium trade. Broomhall and James Laidlaw Maxwell appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of the trade. As Broomhall lay dying, an article from The Times
was read to him with the welcome news that an international agreement had been signed ensuring the end of the opium trade within two years.

Newspaper article from The Daily Picayune, New Orleans, Louisiana in 1912 reporting on a drug arrest, a month after the International Opium Convention was signed and ratified at The Hague

In 1906, a motion to 'declare the opium trade "morally indefensible" and remove Government support for it', initially unsuccessfully proposed by

Arthur Pease in 1891, was put before the House of Commons. This time the motion passed. The Qing government banned opium soon afterward.[25]

These changing attitudes led to the founding of the

drug control treaty and it was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on January 23, 1922.[26]
The Convention provided that "The contracting Powers shall use their best endeavors to control or to cause to be controlled, all person manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing, and exporting morphine, cocaine, and their respective salts, as well as the buildings in which these persons carry such an industry or trade."

The treaty became international law in 1919 when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles. The role of the commission was passed to the League of Nations, and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes.

Prohibition

In the UK the

ecogonine and heroin.[27][28]

Hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese-Canadian opium users and fear of a spread of the drug into the white population led to the effective criminalization of opium for nonmedical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid-1920s.[29]

The Mao Zedong government nearly eradicated both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using social control and isolation.[30] Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.[31] The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the Vietnam War, with 20 percent of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users and one million registered drug addicts.[32]

In the US, the

Marijuana Tax Act in 1937. Soon, however, licensing bodies did not issue licenses, effectively banning the drugs.[35]

The American judicial system did not initially accept drug prohibition. Prosecutors argued that possessing drugs was a tax violation, as no legal licenses to sell drugs were in existence; hence, a person possessing drugs must have purchased them from an unlicensed source. After some wrangling, this was accepted as federal jurisdiction under the

U.S. Constitution
.

Alcohol prohibition

The prohibition of alcohol commenced in Finland in 1919 and in the United States in 1920. Because alcohol was the most popular recreational drug in these countries, reactions to its prohibition were far more negative than to the prohibition of other drugs, which were commonly associated with ethnic minorities, prostitution, and vice. Public pressure led to the repeal of alcohol prohibition in Finland in 1932, and in the United States in 1933. Residents of many provinces of Canada also experienced alcohol prohibition for similar periods in the first half of the 20th century.[36]

In Sweden,

motbok
").

War on Drugs

American drug law enforcement agents detain a man in 2005.
Opium poppies growing in Afghanistan
, a major source of drugs today

In response to rising drug use among young people and the counterculture movement, government efforts to enforce prohibition were strengthened in many countries from the 1960s onward. Support at an international level for the prohibition of psychoactive drug use became a consistent feature of United States policy during both Republican and Democratic administrations, to such an extent that US support for foreign governments has often been contingent on their adherence to US drug policy.[citation needed] Major milestones in this campaign include the introduction of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances in 1971 and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances in 1988. A few developing countries where consumption of the prohibited substances has enjoyed longstanding cultural support, long resisted such outside pressure to pass legislation adhering to these conventions. Nepal only did so in 1976.[37][38]

In 1972, United States President

Rockefeller drug laws after New York Governor and later Vice President Nelson Rockefeller
. Similar laws were introduced across the United States.

California's broader '

three strikes and you're out' policy adopted in 1994 was the first mandatory sentencing
policy to gain widespread publicity and was subsequently adopted in most United States jurisdictions. This policy mandates life imprisonment for a third criminal conviction of any felony offense. A similar 'three strikes' policy was introduced to the United Kingdom by the Conservative government in 1997. This legislation enacted a mandatory minimum sentence of seven years for those convicted for a third time of a drug trafficking offense involving a class A drug.

Calls for legalization, relegalization or decriminalization

The terms relegalization, legalization, legal regulations, or decriminalization are used with very different meanings by different authors, something that can be confusing when the claims are not specified. Here are some variants:

  • Sales of one or more drugs (e.g.,
    marijuana
    ) for personal use become legal, at least if sold in a certain way.
  • Sales of an extracts with a specific substance become legal sold in a certain way, for example on prescription.
  • Use or possession of small amounts for personal use do not lead to incarceration if it is the only crime, but it is still illegal; the court or the prosecutor can impose a fine. (In that sense, Sweden both legalized and supported drug prohibition simultaneously.)
  • Use or possession of small amounts for personal use do not lead to incarceration. The case is not treated in an ordinary court, but by a commission that may recommend treatment or sanctions including fines. (In that sense, Portugal both legalized and supported drug prohibitions).

There are efforts around the world to promote the

NGOs. A number of NGOs are aligned in support of drug prohibition as members of the World Federation Against Drugs. WFAD members support the United Nations narcotics conventions.[39][40]


According to some critics, drug prohibition is responsible for enriching "organised criminal networks"
[41] while the hypothesis that the prohibition of drugs generates violence is consistent with research done over long time-series and cross-country facts.[42]

In the United Kingdom, where the principal piece of drug prohibition legislation is the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971,[43] criticism includes:

People marching in the streets of Cape Town against the prohibition of cannabis in South Africa, May 2015

In February 2008 the then-president of Honduras, Manuel Zelaya, called on the world to legalize drugs, in order, he said, to prevent the majority of violent murders occurring in Honduras. Honduras is used by cocaine smugglers as a transiting point between Colombia and the US. Honduras, with a population of 7 million, suffers an average of 8–10 murders a day, with an estimated 70% being a result of this international drug trade. The same problem is occurring in Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Mexico, according to Zelaya.[48] In January 2012 Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos made a plea to the United States and Europe to start a global debate about legalizing drugs.[49] This call was echoed by the Guatemalan President Otto Pérez Molina, who announced his desire to legalize drugs, saying "What I have done is put the issue back on the table."[50]

In a report dealing with

UN called for the decriminalization of drugs particularly including injected ones. This conclusion put WHO at odds with broader long-standing UN policy favoring criminalization.[51]
Eight states of the United States (Alaska, California, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington), as well as the District of Columbia, have legalized the sale of marijuana for personal recreational use as of 2017, although recreational use remains illegal under U.S. federal law. The conflict between state and federal law is, as of 2018, unresolved.

Since Uruguay in 2014 and Canada in 2018 legalized cannabis, the debate has known a new turn internationally.

Drug prohibition laws

The following individual drugs, listed under their respective family groups (e.g., barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opiates), are the most frequently sought after by drug users and as such are prohibited or otherwise heavily regulated for use in many countries:

The regulation of the above drugs varies in many countries. Alcohol possession and consumption by adults is today widely banned only in

iboga, and peyote. In Gabon, iboga (tabernanthe iboga) has been declared a national treasure and is used in rites of the Bwiti religion. The active ingredient, ibogaine,[52]
is proposed as a treatment of opioid withdrawal and various substance use disorders.

In countries where alcohol and tobacco are legal, certain measures are frequently undertaken to discourage use of these drugs. For example, packages of alcohol and tobacco sometimes communicate warnings directed towards the consumer, communicating the potential risks of partaking in the use of the substance. These drugs also frequently have special sin taxes associated with the purchase thereof, in order to recoup the losses associated with public funding for the health problems the use causes in long-term users. Restrictions on advertising also exist in many countries, and often a state holds a monopoly on manufacture, distribution, marketing, and/or the sale of these drugs.

List of principal drug prohibition laws by jurisdiction (non-exhaustive)

Legal dilemmas

The sentencing statutes in the United States Code that cover controlled substances are complicated. For example, a first-time offender convicted in a single proceeding for selling marijuana three times, and found to have carried a gun on him all three times (even if it were not used) is subject to a minimum sentence of 55 years in federal prison.[61]

In Hallucinations: Behavior, Experience, and Theory (1975), senior US government researchers Louis Jolyon West and Ronald K. Siegel explain how drug prohibition can be used for selective social control:

The role of drugs in the exercise of political control is also coming under increasing discussion. Control can be through prohibition or supply. The total or even partial prohibition of drugs gives the government considerable leverage for other types of control. An example would be the selective application of drug laws ... against selected components of the population such as members of certain minority groups or political organizations.[62]

Linguist Noam Chomsky argues that drug laws are currently, and have historically been, used by the state to oppress sections of society it opposes:[63][64]

Very commonly substances are criminalized because they're associated with what's called the dangerous classes, poor people, or working people. So for example in England in the 19th century, there was a period when

whiskey
wasn't, because gin is what poor people drink.

Legal highs and prohibition

In 2013 the

synthetic cannabinoids within a month.[67] An estimated 73 new psychoactive synthetic drugs appeared on the UK market in 2012. The response of the Home Office has been to create a temporary class drug order which bans the manufacture, import, and supply (but not the possession) of named substances.[68]

Corruption

In certain countries,[

Harry Anslinger's opponents accused him of taking bribes from the Mafia to enact prohibition and create a black market for alcohol.[69] More recently in the Philippines, one death squad hitman told author Niko Vorobyov that he was being paid by military officers to eliminate those drug dealers who failed to pay a 'tax'.[vague][70] Under President Rodrigo Duterte, the Philippines has waged a bloody war against drugs that may have resulted in up to 29,000 extrajudicial killings.[71]

When it comes to social control with cannabis, there are different aspects to consider. Not only do we assess legislative leaders and the way they vote on cannabis, but we also must consider the federal regulations and taxation that contribute to social controls. For instance, according to a report on the U.S. customs and border protections, the American industry, although banned the main usage of marijuana, was still using products similar such as hemp seeds, oils etc. leading to the previously discussed marijuana tax act.[72]

The Tax act provisions[73] required importers to register and pay an annual tax of $24 and receive an official stamp. Stamps for Products were then affixed to each original order form and recorded by the state revenue collector. Then, a customs collector[74] was to maintain the custody of imported marijuana at entry ports until required documents were received, reviewed and approved.Shipments were subject to searches, seizures and forfeitures if any provisions of the law were not met. Violations would result in fines of no more than $2000 or potential imprisonment for up to 5 years. Oftentimes, this created opportunity for corruption, stolen imports that would later lead to smuggling, oftentimes by state officials and tight knit elitists.

Penalties

United States

Total incarceration in the United States by year
US cannabis arrests by year

Drug possession is the crime of having one or more illegal drugs in one's possession, either for personal use, distribution, sale or otherwise. Illegal drugs fall into different categories and sentences vary depending on the amount, type of drug, circumstances, and jurisdiction. In the U.S., the penalty for illegal drug possession and sale can vary from a small fine to a prison sentence. In some states, marijuana possession is considered to be a petty offense, with the penalty being comparable to that of a speeding violation. In some municipalities, possessing a small quantity of marijuana in one's own home is not punishable at all. Generally, however, drug possession is an arrestable offense, although first-time offenders rarely serve jail time. Federal law makes even possession of "soft drugs", such as cannabis, illegal, though some local governments have laws contradicting federal laws.

In the U.S., the War on Drugs is thought to be contributing to a prison overcrowding problem. In 1996, 59.6%[75] of prisoners were drug-related criminals. The U.S. population grew by about +25% from 1980 to 2000. In that same 20 year time period, the U.S. prison population tripled, making the U.S. the world leader in both percentage and absolute number of citizens incarcerated. The United States has 5% of the world's population, but 25% of the prisoners.[76]

About 90% of United States prisoners are incarcerated in state jails. In 2016, about 572,000, over 44%, of the 1.3 million people in these state jails, were serving time for drug offenses. 728,000 were incarcerated for violent offenses.[77]

The data from Federal Bureau of Prisons online statistics page states that 45.9% of prisoners were incarcerated for drug offenses, as of December 2021.[78]

European Union

In 2004, the Council of the European Union adopted a framework decision harmonizing the minimum penal provisions for illicit drug-related activities.[79] In particular, article 2(9) stipulates that activities may be exempt from the minimum provisions "when it is committed by its perpetrators exclusively for their own personal consumption as defined by national law." This was made, in particular, to accommodate more liberal national systems such as the Dutch coffee shops (see below) or the Spanish Cannabis Social Clubs.

The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, cannabis and other "soft" drugs are decriminalised in small quantities. The Dutch government treats the problem as more of a public health issue than a criminal issue. Contrary to popular belief, cannabis is still technically illegal.

Coffee shops that sell cannabis to people 18 or above are tolerated, and pay taxes like any other business for their cannabis and hashish sales, although distribution is a grey area that the authorities would rather not go into as it is not decriminalised. Many "coffee shops" are found in Amsterdam
and cater mainly to the large tourist trade; the local consumption rate is far lower than in the US.

Coffeeshop in Amsterdam

The administrative bodies responsible for enforcing the drug policies include the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, and the Ministry of Finance. Local authorities also shape local policy, within the national framework.

When compared to other countries, Dutch drug consumption falls in the European average at six per cent regular use (twenty-one per cent at some point in life) and considerably lower than the Anglo-Saxon countries headed by the United States with an eight per cent recurring use (thirty-four at some point in life).

Australia

A Nielsen poll in 2012 found that only 27% of voters favoured decriminalisation.[80] Australia has steep penalties for growing and using drugs even for personal use.[81][82][83] with Western Australia having the toughest laws.[84] There is an associated anti-drug culture amongst a significant number of Australians. Law enforcement targets drugs, particularly in the party scene.[85] In 2012, crime statistics in Victoria revealed that police were increasingly arresting users rather than dealers,[86] and the Liberal government banned the sale of bongs that year.[87]

Indonesia

ecstasy
pills. She pleaded guilty to possession and in November 2005 was sentenced to 3 months imprisonment, which she was deemed to have already served, and was released from prison immediately upon her admission of guilt on the charge of possession.

At the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Indonesia, along with India, Turkey, Pakistan and some South American countries opposed the criminalisation of drugs.[88]

Republic of China (Taiwan)

Department of Health is in charge of drug prohibition.[89]

Cost

In 2020, the direct cost of drug prohibition to United States taxpayers was estimated at over $40 billion annually.

mass incarceration via the trade in illegal drugs, while racial and gender disparities in enforcement are evident.[91][92][93]

Although drug prohibition is often portrayed by proponents as a measure to improve

HIV infection and detrimental effects on the social determinants of health.[91] Some proponents argue that drug prohibition's effect on suppressing usage rates (although the magnitude of this effect is unknown) outweighs the negative effects of prohibition.[91]

Alternative approaches to prohibition include

See also

US specific:

References

  1. ^ Pan, L (1975). Alcohol in Colonial Africa (PDF). Forssa: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
  2. S2CID 151655016
    .
  3. on December 3, 2016. Retrieved August 4, 2017.
  4. .
  5. ^ "Coffee facts, coffee trivia & coffee information!". Coffee Facts. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
  6. ^ "Who Are the Mormons?". Beliefnet. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
  7. .
  8. ^ Hopkins, Kate (March 24, 2006). "Food Stories: The Sultan's Coffee Prohibition". Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2006.
  9. .
  10. .
  11. ^ .Patterns of intergenerational child protective services involvement
  12. ^ Berridge, Virginia; Edwards, Griffith (1981), Opium and the People, Opiate Use in Nineteenth-Century England, archived from the original on December 25, 2013
  13. ^ "Pharmacy Act 1868", Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), archived from the original on December 22, 2012, retrieved June 18, 2013
  14. ^ Berridge & Edwards 1981, Ch. 10
  15. ^ Licit and Illicit Drugs – Chapter 6, Opium Smoking Is Outlawed. Druglibrary.org. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  16. ^ Richards, John (May 23, 2001). "Opium and the British Indian Empire". Retrieved September 24, 2007.
  17. ^ Legal Information Access Centre. "Drug laws in Australia".
  18. ^ . Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  19. , p. 30
  20. p. 29
  21. p. 39
  22. . Although the Royal Commission killed opium suppression as an active political issue for the next fifteen years, the anti-opium crusaders continued their campaign, denouncing the commission as a whitewash and attempting to counter it with data of their own.
  23. .
  24. .
  25. ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 8, pp. 188–239.
  26. The Manchester Guardian
    ; "Sale Of " Dope " Drugs: New Control Regulations"; January 8, 1921
  27. ^ "Drugs and DORA". Retrieved December 17, 2012.
  28. ^ Carstairs, C. (2006). "Jailed for Possession: Illegal Drug Use, Regulation, and Power in Canada, 1920–61". Archived from the original on January 25, 2003.
  29. JSTOR 40209806
    .
  30. ^ Alfred W. McCoy. "Opium History, 1858 to 1940". Archived from the original on April 4, 2007. Retrieved May 4, 2007.
  31. ^ Michael Mackey (April 29, 2004). "Banned in China for sex, drugs, disaffection". Archived from the original on June 10, 2004. Retrieved June 8, 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  32. ^ Jin Fuey Moy v. United States 254 U.S. 189 (1920)
  33. ^ Brecher, Edward M. Chapter 8. "The Harrison Narcotic Act (1914)" in The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs. Consumer Reports Magazine. Druglibrary.org. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  34. ^ The War on Drugs Begins
  35. ^ prohibition,alcohol interdict
  36. ^ Charles, Molly (2001). "The drug scene in India". India-seminar.com. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  37. ^ UNODC: Nepal, Executive Summary. (PDF). Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  38. ^ WFAD members
  39. ^ Drug Legalisation: An Evaluation of the Impacts on Global Society Archived November 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, World Federation Against Drugs, 2011
  40. ^ New Statesman Banning Khat is one of the most dangerous decisions made during the 'war on drugs' 9 September 2013
  41. S2CID 154952733
    .
  42. ^ a b Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (c.38), the text of the act, OPSI website, accessed 27 January 2009
  43. ^ Drug classification: making a hash of it?, Fifth Report of Session 2005–06, House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, accessed 29 January 2009
  44. S2CID 5903121
    .
  45. ^ Scientists want new drug rankings, BBC News website, 23 March 2007, accessed 27 January 2009
  46. ^ "Drug Equality Alliance (DEA) - Cases". Archived from the original on March 31, 2022. Retrieved February 28, 2022.
  47. ^ Zelaya sugiere a EUA legalizar drogas. laprensahn.com (February 23, 2008)
  48. ^ Santos reiterates call on global drug legalization debate. Colombia Reports. January 29, 2012
  49. ^ Guatemalan president leads drug legalization debate. CNN. March 23, 2012
  50. ^ "The WHO calls for decriminalisation", The Economist, July 17, 2014. With link to "Consolidated guidelines on HIV prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care for key populations", WHO, July 2014. Retrieved July 20, 2014.
  51. PMID 18029124
    .
  52. ^ "মাদকদ্রব্য নিয়ন্ত্রণ আইন, ২০১৮".
  53. ^ Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, Department of Justice website, accessed 9 February 2009 Archived 5 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  54. ^ Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, New Zealand website, accessed 9 February 2009
  55. ^ http://www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/Control-of-Narcotic-Substances-Act-XXV.pdf[bare URL PDF]
  56. ^ Misuse of Drugs Act 1977, Office of the Houses of the Oireachtas website, accessed 9 February 2009 Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  57. ^ Misuse of Drugs Act 1984, Irish Government website, accessed 9 February 2009 Archived 27 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  58. ^ Drugs Act 2005 (c. 17), OPSI website, accessed 2 February 2009
  59. ^ Controlled Substances Act (short title), U.S. Food and Drug Administration website, accessed 6 February 2009
  60. ^ U.S. v. Angelos, 345 F. Supp. 2d 1227 (D. Utah 2004)
  61. .
  62. ^ The Drug War Industrial Complex – Noam Chomsky interviewed by John Veit. (April 1998) Chomsky.info. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  63. ^ Drug Policy as Social Control - Noam Chomsky. (May 1997) Prison Legal News. Retrieved October 25, 2020.
  64. ^ Power, Mike (May 29, 2013) Rise in legal highs is fuelled by drug prohibition. The Guardian.
  65. ^ Will the mephedrone ban cause more drug deaths? BBC News Online . November 23. 2010
  66. ^ Grim, Ryan (November 24, 2010). "K2 Crackdown: DEA Using Emergency Powers To Ban Fake Pot". The Huffington Post. Retrieved November 25, 2010.
  67. ^ Two new 'legal highs' to be banned for 12 months. The Guardian. June 4, 2013
  68. ^ Hari, J., 2015. Chasing the scream: The first and last days of the war on drugs. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
  69. ^ Vorobyov, Niko (2019) Dopeworld. Hodder, UK. p. 252
  70. ^ The Philippine Star – 29,000 deaths probed since drug war launched
  71. ^ Creighton Woodward, William (July 10, 1937). "Cannabis Action Coalition". American Medical Association: 4.
  72. ^ "Did You Know... Marijuana Was Once a Legal Cross-Border Import? | U.S. Customs and Border Protection Preview". www.cbp.gov. Retrieved May 30, 2022.
  73. ^ "Veteran Customs Official Found Guilty of Taking Payoffs, Lying". Los Angeles Times. November 6, 1986. Retrieved May 30, 2022.
  74. ^ Liptak, Adam (April 23, 2008). "U.S. prison population dwarfs that of other nations". The New York Times. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
  75. ^ John Pfaff (January 28, 2017). "A Better Approach to Violent Crime". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
  76. ^ "Federal Bureau of Prisons - Statistics - Offenses". Federal Bureau of Prisons. December 25, 2021. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  77. . EUR-Lex - Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
  78. ^ Metherell, Mark & Davies, Lisa (May 21, 2012). "Voters oppose relaxing drug laws despite failure of 'war'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  79. ^ Lynch, Jared & Thomson, Andrew (January 2, 2013). "Marijuana crop costs man his home and 400,000 in bills". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  80. ^ Butcher, Steven (November 8, 2002). "Man turns Safeway seeds to opium". The Age. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  81. ^ "Tip-off led to cannabis drug bust". Maitland Mercury. March 6, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  82. ^ Bennett, Cortlan (March 29, 2012). "Parents face jail under tough WA drug laws". Australian Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 4, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  83. ^ Silva, Kristian (March 10, 2013). "Dozens arrested for drugs at music festival". The Age. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
  84. ^ Beck, Maris (April 13, 2012). "Police arrest more users than dealers". The Age. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
  85. ^ "Bong ban now in force". Premier of Victoria. January 2012. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
  86. ^ "Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs". May 27, 2011. Archived from the original on November 17, 2002. Retrieved June 23, 2011.
  87. ^ Kaohsiung City Government (2016). "The Chronology of Department of Health, Kaohsiung City Government". Archived from the original on March 30, 2016. Retrieved April 13, 2016.
  88. ^ ""The Great Pot Experiment": A Budding Industry: Wouldn't It Be Better If It Was a Legal Billion-Dollar Industry?". Hous. Bus. & Tax L.J. 20: 82. 2020.
  89. ^
    PMID 27021149
    .
  90. .
  91. .
  92. .
  93. .

Further reading

External links