*Dyēus
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*Dyḗus (
While its existence is not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, *Dyēus is considered by scholars the most securely reconstructed deity of the Indo-European pantheon, as identical formulas referring to him can be found among the subsequent Indo-European languages and myths of the Vedic Indo-Aryans, Latins, Greeks, Phrygians, Messapians, Thracians, Illyrians, Albanians and Hittites.[3][2]
Name
Etymology
The divine name *Dyēus derives from the stem *dyeu-, denoting the "diurnal sky" or the "brightness of the day" (in contrast to the darkness of the night), ultimately from the root *di or dei- ("to shine, be bright").[1][4] Cognates in Indo-European languages revolving around the concepts of "day", "sky" and "deity" and sharing the root *dyeu- as an etymon, such as Sanskrit dyumán- 'heavenly, shining, radiant',[5] suggest that Dyēus referred to the vast and bright sky of the day conceived as a divine entity among Proto-Indo-European speakers.[1][4]
A
While the
Epithets
The most constant epithet associated with *Dyēus is "father" (*ph₂tḗr). The term "Father Dyēus" was inherited in the Vedic
Role
*Dyēus was the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven.
*Dyēus was associated with the bright and vast sky, but also to the cloudy weather in the Vedic and Greek formulas *Dyēus' rain.
Due to his celestial nature, *Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing" or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for Zeus or the Indo-Iranian Mithra–Varuna duo, but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties.[23] Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēus" or the "eye of Dyēus", as seen in various reflexes: "the god's lamp" in Euripides' Medea, "heaven's candle" in Beowulf, "the land of Hatti's torch" (the Sun-goddess of Arinna) in a Hittite prayer,[24] Helios as the eye of Zeus,[25][26] Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda, and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore.[27]
Consort
*Dyēus is often paired with
While Hausos and the Divine Twins are generally considered the offsprings of *Dyēus alone,
If the female goddesses Hera, Juno, Frigg and Shakti share a common association with marriage and fertility, Mallory and Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."[37]
Evidence
Cognates deriving either from the stem *dyeu- ("daylight, bright sky"), the epithet *Dyēus Ph2ter ("Father Sky"), the vṛddhi-derivative *deiwós ("celestial", a "god"), the derivative *diwyós ("divine"), or the back-formation *deynos (a "day") are among the most widely attested in Indo-European languages.[2][3]
Descendants
- PIE: *d(e)i-, 'to shine, be bright',[1][4]
- PIE: *dyēus, the daylight-sky god,[2][3][38]
- Indo-Iranian: *dyauš,[39]
- Sanskrit: Dyáuṣ (द्यौष्), the god of Heaven, and dyú (द्यु), the common word for "heaven",[1][4]
- Old Avestan: dyaoš (𐬛𐬫𐬀𐬊𐬱), "heaven", mentioned in a single verse of the Avesta;[40] Young Avestan: diiaoš, "hell", as a result of the Zoroastrian religious reformation,[38][39]
- Mycenaean Greek: di-we (𐀇𐀸 /diwei/), dative case of an otherwise scarcely attested name,[41]
- Italic: *d(i)jous,[47]
- Old Latin: Dioue (or loue), Dijovis (diovis),[46]
- Oscan: Diúvei (Διουϝει), genitive singular,[38][50][51]
- Umbrian: Di or Dei (Grabouie/Graboue), attested in the Iguvine Tablets,[52][48]
- Paelignian: Ioviois (Pvclois) and Ioveis (Pvcles), interpreted as a calque of the Greek theonym Diós-kouroi,[53][54]
- Anatolian: *diéu-, *diu-, a "god",[55]
- Proto-Armenian: *Tiw, the Sky- or Thunder-god,[60]
- Armenian: tiw (Տիւ), "day, daytime, morning" and ti, "day" (only in erk-ti "two days"); and possibly also ciacan "rainbow" (according to Martirosyan, from *Ti(w)-a- attached to *can- "sign, omen", thus "the sign of the Sky/Thunder-god"),[60]
- Illyrian: dei-, meaning "heaven" or "God", as in Dei-pátrous, the "sky-father",[1]
- Proto-Messapic: *dyēs,[61]
- Albanian: Zojz, a sky and lightning god;[63][64][65] the root *d(e)i- may also be found in Perën-di "Heaven", "God" (with a suffix -di attached to per-en-, an extension of PIE *per- "to strike"),[66][67][68]
- Thracian: Zi-, Diu-, and Dias- (in personal names),[62]
- Phrygian: Tiy-,[62][69]
- Bithynia: Tiyes and the place name Tium (Τιεῖον).[70]
- Indo-Iranian: *dyauš,[39]
- PIE: *dyēus, the daylight-sky god,[2][3][38]
"Sky-Father" epithet
Ritual and formulaic expressions stemming from the form *Dyēus Ph2ter ("Father Dyēus") were inherited in the following liturgic and poetic traditions:
- PIE: *dyēus ph2tḗr, 'Father Sky' (voc. *dyeu ph2ter, "O Father Sky"),[2][3][71]
Other reflexes are variants that have retained both linguistic descendants of the stem *dyeu- ("sky") alongside the original structure "Father God". Some traditions have replaced the epithet *ph2ter with the nursery word papa ("dad, daddy"):
- Luwian: Tātis tiwaz, "Daddy Tiwaz", the Sun-god,[73]
- Palaic: Tiyaz papaz, "Papa Tiyaz", the Sun-god,[17]
- Scythian: Papaios (Papa Zios), "father Zeus", the god of the Sky,[17]
- Old Irish: in Dagdae Oll-athair, "Great Father the Dagda" (from the Proto-Celtic formula *sindos dago-dēwos ollo fātir, "Great Father the Good God").[74][75]
Other variants are less secured:
- Hittite: attas Isanus, "Father Sun-god"; the name of the sky-god was replaced with a Hattic sun-god loan, but the original structure of the formula left intact,[19]
- Latvian: Debess tēvs, "Father of Heaven",[2]
- Tokharian B: kauṃ-ñäkte, 'sun, sun-god'.[71]
"Celestial" derivations
Cognates stemming from *deywós, a vṛddhi-derivation of *dyēus (the sky-god), are attested in the following traditions:[80]
- PIE: *deywós (lit. skyling, pl. *deywṓs), meaning "celestial, heavenly one", hence a "god",[4][8][80]
- Indo-Iranian: *daivá (daiua), a "god",[81][39]
- Sanskrit: devá (देव), meaning "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence",[4][8] and devi, female title meaning "goddess";[82]
- Avestan: daēva (𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀, daēuua), a term for "demons" in Zoroastrianism, as a result of a religious reformation that degraded the status of prior deities,[4][8]
- Old Persian: daiva meaning "false deities, demons",[46]
- Balto-Slavic: *deiwas,[83]
- Germanic: *tīwaz (pl. *tīwōz), a word for "god" that probably also served as a title (*Tīwaz, "God") that came to be associated with a specific deity whose original name is now lost,[89][90]
- Late Proto-Germanic *Tiwasdag, a calque of Latin dies Martis which gave the word for 'Tuesday' in Old Norse Týs-dagr, Old English Tīwes-dæg, Old Frisian Tīesdi, and Old High German Zies-tag;[89][91] interpreted as a remnant of the sky and war functions of *Tīwaz by G. Kroonen, although M. L. West views it as unlikely,[89][90]
- Old Norse: Týr, associated with justice;[92] the plural tívar survived as a poetic word for 'the gods', and týr appears in kennings for Odin and Thor,[91] such as in the Odin's names Sigtýr ("victory-god"), Gautatýr ("god of the Geats"), Fimbultýr ("powerful god"), or Hertýr ("army-god"),[93][94]
- Old English: Tīw (or Tīg), Old High German: Zio (or *Ziu), a god,[89][95]
- Gothic: *Teiws, a deity reconstructed from the associated rune ᛏ (Tyz),[96][92]
- Late Proto-Germanic *Tiwasdag, a calque of Latin dies Martis which gave the word for 'Tuesday' in Old Norse Týs-dagr, Old English Tīwes-dæg, Old Frisian Tīesdi, and Old High German Zies-tag;[89][91] interpreted as a remnant of the sky and war functions of *Tīwaz by G. Kroonen, although M. L. West views it as unlikely,[89][90]
- Italic: *deiwos, a "god, a deity",[95]
- Old Latin: deivos (deiuos), the "gods",[95][46]
- Latin: deus, common name for a "god, a deity";[95][4][8] and Dea ("goddess"),[95] a title assigned to various Roman goddesses like Dea Tacita, Bona Dea or Dea Dia ("Goddess of the Daylight" or "Bright Goddess").[97]
- Vulgar Latin: Deus, the god of Christianity in the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate,[98]
- Latin: deus, common name for a "god, a deity";[95][4][8] and Dea ("goddess"),[95] a title assigned to various Roman goddesses like Dea Tacita, Bona Dea or Dea Dia ("Goddess of the Daylight" or "Bright Goddess").[97]
- Oscan: deivas, Venetic: deivos, "gods",[95][8]
- Old Latin: deivos (deiuos), the "gods",[95][46]
- Celtic: *dēwos, a "god, a deity",[101][102] and *dago-dēwos, the "good god", old name of the Dagda,[75][74]
- Celtiberian: teiuo, a "god",[101][102]
- Gaulish: dēuos, a "god",[101][102]
- Gaulish: Devona (/deuona/) or Divona (/diuona/), a deity of sacred waters, springs, and rivers whose name means "Divine",[103]
- Old Welsh: Dubr Duiu ("Water of the Divinity"),[104] evolving into Mod. Welsh Dyfrdwy (River Dee, Wales).[105] The form deva, diva ("goddess") likewise appears in Celtic river names throughout Western Europe,[103][106][107] such as in the Scottish rivers Dēoúa (modern-day Dee, Galloway),[103] and Dēouana (Δηουανα; modern-day Don, Aberdeenshire),[108][109]
- Old Irish: día, a "god",[101][102][8] and An Dag-da, the druid-god of wisdom,[75][74]
- Irish: Dhe ("god"), attested in the modern Sùil Dhé mhóir prayer ("The eye of the great God", in reference to the Sun), featured in Carmina Gadelica.[110][111]
- Phrygian: devos.[8]
- Indo-Iranian: *daivá (daiua), a "god",[81][39]
Other cognates are less secured:
- Slavic: *diva (> *dîvo), perhaps a word for a "good deity" which progressively took the meaning of "miracle", hence "evil being",[112][113][114]
- Lusitanian: Reo, an unknown deity.[51]
- Lusitanian: Deiba and Deibo, attested in votive inscriptions of altars;[118] taken to mean the "local" or "indigenous" pronunciations of Deae and Deo.[119]
"Divine" derivations
Other cognates deriving from the adjective *diwyós (*dyeu "sky" + yós, a thematic suffix) are attested in the following traditions:[120]
- PIE: *diwyós, meaning "divine, heavenly, godlike",[4][121]
- Mycenaean Greek: di-wi-jo (/diwjos/), di-wi-ja (/diwja/),[8][122]
- Indo-Iranian: *diuiHa- / diuiia-,[39]
-
- Latin: dīvus, dīvī, "divine, heavenly, godlike",[95]
- Latin: Dīs Pater, from dīves (gen. dītis), meaning "wealthy, rich", probably derived from *dīwīs > dīvus via the intermediate form *dīw-(o)t- or *dīw-(e)t- ("who is like the gods, protected by the gods"), with contraction *īwi- > ī. According to de Vaan, "the occurrence of the deity Dīs together with pater may be due to association with Di(e)spiter."[124]
- Latin:
- Latin: dīus, dīā, another adjective with the same meaning, probably based on *dīwī > diī (dat.abl.pl. dīs),[95]
- Latin: dīvus, dīvī, "divine, heavenly, godlike",[95]
Other cognates are less secured:
Legacy
As the pantheons of the individual mythologies related to Proto-Indo-European religion evolved, attributes of *Dyēus seem to have been redistributed to other deities. In Greek and Roman mythology, *Dyēus was the chief god, while the etymological continuant of Dyēus became a very abstract god in
In Albanian tradition
After the first access of the ancestors of the
In Slavic tradition
At one point, early Slavs, like some Iranian peoples after the Zoroastrian religious reformation, demonized the Slavic successor of *Dyēus (abandoning this word in the sense of "heaven" at the same time, keeping the word for day, however, and abandoning many of the names of the other Proto-Indo-European gods, replacing them with new Slavic or Iranian names), while not replacing it with any other specific god, as a result of cultural contacts with Iranian peoples in the first millennium BC. Hence, after the process of demonization by the Slavs, *Dyēus is considered to have originated two continuations: *divo ("strange, odd thing") and *divъ ("demon").[131] The result of this demonization may be Pan-Slavic demons, e.g. Polish and Czech dziwożona, or Div occurring in The Tale of Igor's Campaign.[132][133]
According to some researchers, at least some of *Dyēus's traits could have been taken over by
In non-Indo-European traditions
Various loanwords of *deiwós were introduced in non-Indo-European languages, such as Estonian taevas or Finnish taivas ("sky"), borrowed from Proto-Indo-Iranian into these Uralic languages.[1][137]
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Further reading
- Hopkins, Grace Sturtevant (1932). "Indo-European *Deiwos and Related Words". Language. 8 (4): 5–83. JSTOR 522076.
- Cook, Arthur Bernard (1905). "The European Sky-God. III: The Italians". Folklore. 16 (3): 260–332. JSTOR 1253947.
- Cook, Arthur Bernard (1904). "Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak. (Conclusion.)". The Classical Review. 18 (7): 360–375. JSTOR 694614.
- Duev, Ratko (29 October 2020). "The Family of Zeus in Early Greek Poetry and Myths". Classica Cracoviensia. 22: 121–144. S2CID 226337822.
- Kerényi, Carl; Holme, Christopher (1975). "The Word 'Zeus' and its Synonyms, 'Theos' and 'Daimon'". Archetypal Images in Greek Religion: 5. Zeus and Hera: Archetypal Image of Father, Husband, and Wife. Princeton University Press. pp. 3–20. JSTOR j.ctt13x190c.5.
- Kretschmer, Paul (1923). "Dyaus, Ζεὺς, Diespiter und die Abstrakta im Indogermanischen". Glotta. 13 (1/2): 101–114. JSTOR 40265088.
- Laroche, E. (January 1967). "Les Noms anatoliens du 'dieu' et leurs dérivés". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 21 (1): 174–177. S2CID 164110389.
- ProQuest 2578205133.
- Seebold, Elmar (1991). "Der Himmel, der Tag und die Götter bei den Indogermanen". Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics. 104 (1): 29–45. JSTOR 40849007.