Dyfnwal ab Owain

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Dyfnwal ab Owain
King of Strathclyde
PredecessorOwain ap Dyfnwal
SuccessorRhydderch or Máel Coluim
Died975
IssueRhydderch?, Máel Coluim, and Owain?
FatherOwain ap Dyfnwal

Dyfnwal ab Owain (died 975) was a tenth-century

Kingdom of Cumbria. By 927, the kingdom seems to have reached as far south as the River Eamont
.

Dyfnwal appears to have reigned between the 930s and the 970s. He is first attested in the 940s, when he is recorded associated with the ecclesiast

Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, King of Alba
. How much authority the Scots enjoyed over the Cumbrian realm is uncertain.

In 971, the reigning

Edgar, King of the English held a remarkable assembly at Chester which numerous northern kings seem to have attended. Both Dyfnwal and his son, Máel Coluim
, appear to have attended this assembly. The latter is styled King of the Cumbrians in the context of this meeting, which might indicate that Dyfnwal had previously abdicated the throne.

Dyfnwal is recorded to have died in 975 whilst undertaking a pilgrimage to

Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde, who is attested in 1018, may well be a grandson of Dyfnwal. Dyfnwal is likely the eponym of Dunmail Raise in England, and possibly Cardonald and Dundonald/Dundonald Castle
in Scotland.

Background: the tenth century Cumbrian realm

Map of northern Britain
Locations relating to the life and times of Dyfnwal.

For hundreds of years until the late ninth century, the power centre of the

Al Clud ("Rock of the Clyde").[20] In 870, this British stronghold was seized by Irish-based Scandinavians,[21] after which the centre of the realm seems to have relocated further up the River Clyde, and the kingdom itself began to bear the name of the valley of the River Clyde, Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde).[22] The kingdom's new capital may have been situated in the vicinity of Partick.[23] and Govan which straddle the River Clyde,[24] The realm's new hinterland appears to have encompassed the valley and the region of modern Renfrewshire, which may explain this change in terminology.[25]

Refer to caption
The title of Dyfnwal's son and eventual successor, Máel Coluim, as it appears on folio 9r of British Library Cotton Faustina B IX (the Chronicle of Melrose): "rex Cumbrorum".[26]

At some point after the loss of Al Clud, the

Kingdom of Cumbria reflecting its expansion far beyond the Clyde valley.[31][note 3]

Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 502 (Saltair na Rann): "Domnaill meic Eogain".[38][note 4]

Dyfnwal was a son of

Alpínid dynasty of the Scottish Kingdom of Alba.[46] Dyfnwal's father is attested in 934.[47] Although Dyfnwal's father may well be identical to the Cumbrian monarch recorded to have fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937,[48] the sources that note this king fail to identify him by name.[49] Dyfnwal's own reign, therefore, may have stretched from about the 930s to the 970s.[50][note 5]

Cathróe amongst the Cumbrians

Refer to caption
The name of Eiríkr Haraldsson as it appears on folio 36r of Oxford Bodleian Library Laud Miscellaneous 636 (the "E" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle): "Yric Haroldes sunu".[52]

Dyfnwal is attested by the tenth-century Life of St Cathróe, which appears to indicate that he was established as king by at least the 940s. According to this source, when

Leath Ward in Cumberland,[55] or to a settlement in the Lowther valley, not terribly far from where the River Eamont flows.[56]

Amlaíb mac Gofraid campaigning against the English in 937.[57][note 6]

The Life of St Cathróe identifies Cathróe's parents as Fochereach and Bania.

Amlaíb Cúarán during the time of Cathróe's journey.[66] Whilst it is possible that Erich actually refers to Amlaíb mac Gofraid,[7] if he instead refers to Eiríkr Haraldsson, it could be evidence that the latter had been based in the Solway region whilst the Uí Ímair held power in Northumbria,[67] or that the latter indeed held power in Northumbria as early as about 946.[68][note 7]

English aggression and Scottish overlordship

Refer to caption
The terminology employed for Dyfnwal's realm as it appears on folio 142r of British Library Cotton Tiberius B I (the "C" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle): "Cumbra land".[72]

In 945, the "A" version of the eleventh- to thirteenth-century

Cerdicing dynasty as a way to overawe and intimidate neighbouring potentates.[92]

Refer to caption
The Giant's Grave, a collection of apparent tenth-century monuments at Penrith. The stones display significant Scandinavian influences, and are traditionally associated with a legendary king, variably known as Owain Caesarius. It is possible that this figure refers to Dyfnwal's father or son.[93]

Although the Wendover version of Flores historiarum alleges that Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was given Cumbrian territory to hold as a fief from the English, the terminology employed by the more reliable Anglo-Saxon Chronicle seems to suggest that Edmund merely surrendered or granted the region to him,

Carlisle—roughly modern-day Cumberland—which in turn could reveal that the Scots were already in possession of the kingdom's more northerly lands.[97] It is conceivable that the Scots were allowed authority over Cumbrian territory because it was too far to be overseen effectively by the English themselves.[98] As such, it may have been recognised that the Cumbrian territories were situated within the Alpínid sphere of influence rather than that of the Cerdicings.[99] In any event, it is uncertain what authority Máel Coluim mac Domnaill enjoyed over the Cumbrians. Although it is possible that there was a temporary Scottish takeover of the realm,[100] Dyfnwal lived on for decades, and there were certainly later kings.[101] In fact, the Wendover version of the Flores historiarum reveals that the Cumbrians were ruled by a king the year after Edmund's invasion.[102] The concord between the English and the Scots could have been precipitated by the former as a way of further securing their northern frontier from the threat of insular Scandinavians.[103] Similarly, the English campaign against the Cumbrians may have been undertaken in order to isolate the Scots from an alliance with the Scandinavians.[104] In this way, Edmund's conquest and grant of Cumbrian territories to his Scottish counterpart may have been a way of winning the latter's obeisance.[105]

Refer to caption
The terminology used to denote an alliance of Scots, Cumbrians, and Englishmen, on folio 32r of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489 (the Annals of Ulster).[106]

Edmund was assassinated in 946, and succeeded by his brother

Osulf (fl. 946–950), rather than the York-based Scandinavians.[111]

In 952, the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters[112] and the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster appear to report an attack upon the Scandinavians of Northumbria by an alliance of English, Scots, and Cumbrians.[113] If these two annal-entries indeed refer to Cumbrians rather than Welshmen, it would appear to indicate that the former—presumably led by Dyfnwal himself—were supporting the cause of the English with the Scots.[114] One possibility is that the annal-entries record the clash of this coalition against the forces of Eiríkr, a man who was finally overwhelmed and slain two years later.[115]

Refer to caption
Dyfnwal's name as it appears on folio 59r of Oxford Jesus College 111 (the Red Book of Hergest): "dỽnwaỻaỽn".[116]

There is also reason to suspect that a man other than Dyfnwal ruled as king in the wake of Edmund's 945 campaign. For instance, a certain Cadmon is recorded to have witnessed two royal charters of Edmund's successor, Eadred—one in 946 and another in 949—which could be evidence that Cadmon was then the ruling Cumbrian monarch.

Edgar accords the latter kingship over "the Mercians, Northumbrians and Britons".[120] The fact that the acta of Edmund, Eadred, and Edgar fail to record the presence of Dyfnwal could be evidence of English rule over the Cumbrians, who may have been in turn administered by English-aligned agents.[121]

Cumbrian and Scottish contention

Illulb mac Custantín as it appears on 29v of Paris Bibliothèque Nationale Latin 4126 (the Poppleton manuscript): "Indolf filius Constantini".[122]

Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was slain in 954, and succeeded by

Prophecy of Berchán which not only note "woe" inflicted upon the Britons and English, but also the conquest of foreign territories by way of Scottish military might.[128] The notice of Britons in this text could be evidence that Illulb campaigned against Cumbrian-controlled territories.[129] Such conflict may have meant that the apparent Cumbrian extension southwards was mirrored by movement eastwards. One possibility is that the Scots seized Edinburgh not from the English but from Cumbrians who had temporarily taken possession of it. Certainly, the fortress of Edinburgh had anciently been a British stronghold.[130]

Rhydderch, son of Dyfnwal

Refer to caption
The name of Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal, as it appears on folio 8v of British Library Cotton Faustina B IX: "Radhardus".[131]

After Illulb's death in 962, the Scottish kingship appears to have been taken up by

Chronica gentis Scotorum likewise identify Cuilén's killer as Rhydderch, the father of an abducted daughter raped by the Scottish king.[140]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilén mac Illuilb as it appears on folio 29v of Paris Bibliothèque Nationale Latin 4126: "Culen filius Indulf".[122]

Although there is no specific evidence that Rhydderch was himself a king,[141] the fact that Cuilén was involved with his daughter, coupled with the fact that his warband was evidently strong enough to overcome that of Cuilén, suggests that Rhydderch must have been a man of eminent standing.[142] According to the Prophecy of Berchán, Cuilén met his end whilst "seeking a foreign land", which could indicate that he was attempting to lift taxes from the Cumbrians.[143] Another way in which Cuilén may have met his end concerns the record of his father's seizure of Edinburgh. The fact that this conquest would have likely included at least part of Lothian,[144] coupled with the evidence placing Cuilén's demise in the same area, could indicate that Cuilén was slain in the midst of exercising overlordship of this contested territory. If so, the records that link Rhydderch with the regicide could reveal that this wronged father exploited Cuilén's vulnerable position in the region, and that Rhydderch seized the chance to avenge his daughter.[145]

Cináed mac Maíl Choluim, as it appears on folio 15r of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488: "Cinaeth mac Mail Cholaim".[146]
Cináed is recorded to have overseen an invasion of Cumbria during his reign.

Cuilén seems to have been succeeded by his kinsman

King of Alba was evidently an invasion of the kingdom of the Cumbrians.[148] This campaign could well have been a retaliatory response to Cuilén's killing,[149] carried out in the context of crushing a British affront to Scottish authority.[150] In any event, Cináed's invasion ended in defeat,[151] a fact which coupled with Cuilén's killing reveals that the Cumbrian realm was indeed a power to be reckoned with.[152] Whilst it is conceivable that Rhydderch could have succeeded Dyfnwal by the time of Cuilén's fall,[153] another possibility is that Dyfnwal was still the king, and that Cináed's strike into Cumbrian territory was the last conflict of Dyfnwal's reign.[154] In fact, it could have been at about this point when Máel Coluim took up the kingship.[155] According to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, Cináed constructed some sort of fortification on the River Forth, perhaps the strategically located Fords of Frew near Stirling.[156] One possibility is that this engineering project was undertaken in the context of limiting Cumbrian incursions.[157]

Amongst an assembly of kings

Refer to caption
Dyfnwal's name as it appears on folio 9r of British Library Cotton Faustina B IX: "Dufnal".[26]

There is evidence to suggest that Dyfnwal was amongst the assembled kings who are

Chronica majora,[164] and both the Wendover[165] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum.[166] One of the names in all these sources—specifically identified as a Welsh king by Gesta regum Anglorum, Chronica majora, and both versions of Flores historiarum—appears to refer to Dyfnwal.[167] Another named figure, styled King of the Cumbrians, seems to be identical to his son, Máel Coluim.[168][note 9]

Black and white illustration of a king being rowed down a river in a rowboat by eight other kings
An early twentieth-century depiction of Edgar being rowed down the River Dee by eight kings.[172] According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Edgar met six kings at Chester. By the twelfth century, chroniclers alleged that eight kings rowed Edgar down the river in an act of submission.[173] One of these eight was Dyfnwal himself.

Whilst the symbolic tale of the men rowing Edgar down the river may be an unhistorical embellishment, most of the names accorded to the eight kings can be associated with contemporary rulers, suggesting that some of these men may have taken part in a concord with him.[174][note 10] Although the latter accounts allege that the kings submitted to Edgar, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle merely states that they came to an agreement of cooperation with him, and thus became his efen-wyrhtan ("co-workers", "even-workers", "fellow-workers").[176] One possibility is that the assembly somehow relates to Edmund's attested incursion into Cumbria in 945. According to the same source, when Edmund let Cumbria to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, he had done so on the condition that the latter would be his mid-wyrhta ("co-worker", "even-worker", "fellow-worker", "together-wright").[177] Less reliable non-contemporary sources such as De primo Saxonum adventu,[178] both the Wendover[179] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum,[180] and Chronica majora allege that Edgar granted Lothian to Cináed in 975.[181] If this supposed grant formed a part of the episode at Chester, it along with the concord of 945 could indicate that the assembly of 975 was not a submission as such, but more of a conference concerning mutual cooperation along the English borderlands.[182] The location of the assembly of 973 at Chester would have been a logical neutral site for all parties.[183][note 11]

Refer to caption
The name of Edgar as it appears on folio 142v of British Library Cotton Tiberius B I (the "C" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle): "Eadgar Angla cing".[186]

One of the other named kings was Cináed.[187] Considering the fact that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle numbers the kings at six, if Cináed was indeed present, it is unlikely that his rival, Cuilén's brother Amlaíb mac Illuilb, was also in attendance.[188] Although the chronology concerning the reigns of Cináed and Amlaíb mac Illuilb is uncertain[189]—with Amlaíb mac Illuilb perhaps reigning from 971/976–977[190] and Cináed from 971/977–995[188]—the part played by the King of Alba at the assembly could well have concerned the frontier of his realm.[191] One of the other named kings seems to have been Maccus mac Arailt,[192] whilst another could have been this man's brother, Gofraid.[193] These two Islesmen may have been regarded a threats by the Scots[191] and Cumbrians.[188] Maccus and Gofraid are recorded to have devastated Anglesey at the beginning of the decade,[194] which could indicate that Edgar's assembly was undertaken as a means to counter the menace posed by these energetic insular Scandinavians.[195] In fact, there is evidence to suggest that, as a consequence of the assembly at Chester, the brothers may have turned their attention from the British mainland westwards towards Ireland.[196]

Thored Gunnerson as it appears on folio 58v of British Library Cotton Domitian A VIII (the "F" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle): "Thored filius Gunnerses".[197]

Another aspect of the assembly may have concerned the remarkable rising power of Amlaíb Cúarán in Ireland.

Thored Gunnerson is recorded to have ravaged Westmorland in 966, an action that may have been undertaken by the English in the context of a response to Cumbrian southward expansion.[200][note 12] Although the Scottish invasion of Cumbrian and English territory unleashed after Cináed's inauguration could have been intended to tackle Cumbrian opposition,[149] another possibility is that the campaign may have been executed as a way to counter any occupation of Cumbrian territories by Thored.[203]

Death and descendants

Refer to caption
Dyfnwal's title as it appears on folio 33v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489.[204] Irish sources accord him the title rí Bretan ("King of the Britons").[205]

Both Dyfnwal

Brenhinedd y Saesson,[209] and Brut y Tywysogyon, with the latter stating that Dyfnwal died in Rome having received the tonsure.[210] Such religious retirement late in the life of a ruler was not uncommon amongst contemporaries. For example, Custantín evidently became a monk upon his own abdication, whilst Amlaíb Cúarán retired to the holy island of Iona in pilgrimage.[211] One possibility is that Dyfnwal decided to undertake his religious journey—or was perhaps forced to undertake it—as a result of the violent actions of Rhydderch.[212]

Refer to caption
The title of Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim, as it appears on folio 15v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 488: "rí Bretan Tuaisceirt" ("king of the Britons of the north").[213]

It is conceivable that Dyfnwal was still reigning in 973,[214] and that it was Edgar's death two years later that precipitated the transfer of the kingship to Dyfnwal's son Máel Coluim, and contributed to Dyfnwal's pilgrimage to Rome. In fact, the upheaval caused by the absence of the English and Cumbrian kings could well have contributed to Cináed's final elimination of Amlaíb mac Illuilb in 997.[188] Another possibility is that Máel Coluim's part in the 973 assembly may have partly concerned his father's impending pilgrimage, and that he sought surety for Dyfnwal's safe passage through Edgar's realm.[191] The fact that Máel Coluim is identified as one of the assembled kings could indicate that Dyfnwal had relinquished control to him at some point before the convention.[215] Evidence that he had indeed assumed the kingship may exist in the record of a certain Malcolm dux who witnessed an English royal charter in 970.[216] Although the authenticity of this document is questionable, the attested Malcolm could well be identical to Máel Coluim himself.[217][note 13] If Máel Coluim was indeed king in 973, Dyfnwal's role at the assembly may have been that of an 'elder statesman' of sorts—possibly serving as an adviser or mentor—especially considering his decades of experience in international affairs.[219] The fact that he left his realm for Rome could be evidence that he did not regard his realm or dynasty to be threatened during his absence.[220]

Refer to caption
The name of Dyfnwal's apparent son, Owain, as it appears on folio 60r of Oxford Jesus College 111: "owein".[221] This source records the latter's death in 1015.

Surviving sources fail to note the Cumbrian kingdom between the obituaries of Dyfnwal in 975 and his son, Máel Coluim, in 997.

Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde,[227] there is no reason to disregard the obituaries as erroneous. If the like-named men are indeed different people, they could well have been closely related. Whilst the former may have been a son of Dyfnwal himself, the latter could well have been a son of Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim.[228] The Owain who died in 1015, therefore, would seem to have assumed the Cumbrian kingship after Máel Coluim's death in 997, and would appear to have reigned into the early eleventh century before Owain Foel's assumption of the throne.[223]

dual carriageways of the A591 road
.

Dyfnwal may be the man immortalised in the name of a

dual carriageways of the A591 road.[234] It seems to have marked an old boundary between Westmorland and Cumberland, and might have also marked the southern territorial extent of the Cumbrian kingdom.[235] Nevertheless, the site's alleged importance in the early mediaeval period cannot be proven.[236] Other place names that may be named after Dyfnwal include Cardonald (grid reference NS5364),[237] and Dundonald/Dundonald Castle (grid reference NS3636034517).[238]

Notes

  1. Gaelic Domnall.[2]
  2. patronyms in English secondary sources: Domnall mac Eogain,[3] Dunmail map Owain,[4] Dwnwallon ab Owain,[5] Dyfnwal ab Owain,[6] and Dyfnwal map Ywain.[7] Likewise, since the 1990s academics have accorded Dyfnwal various personal names in English secondary sources: Domnaldus,[8] Domnall,[9] Donald,[10] Dovenald,[11] Dufnal,[12] Dumnagual,[13] Dunguallon,[14] Dunmail,[15] Dunwallon,[16] Dyfnal,[17] Dyfnwal,[18] Dyfnwallon,[19] and Dwnwallon.[5]
  3. Mid Lothian, eastern Dumfriesshire, and Cumberland.[32] The Old English Cumbras is cognate with the Welsh Cymry,[33] a designation likely used by both the northern Britons and the more southerly Britons (the Welsh).[34] Examples of the new terminology accorded to the northern realm include Cumbra land and terra Cumbrorum, meaning "land of the Cumbrians".[35] Such 'Cumbrian' nomenclature is found in royal designations, suggesting that it reflected the realm's political expansion. By the mid tenth century, the 'Strathclyde' terminology seems to have been mostly superseded.[36] The expansion of the Cumbrian kingdom may be perceptible in some of the place names of southern Scotland and northern England.[37]
  4. ^ The biblical poem Saltair na Rann seems to have been composed in the late tenth century.[39] The excerpt is that of a passage concerning Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim.[40]
  5. ^ Only three kings are specifically termed "King of the Cumbrians" in historical sources: Dyfnwal's father, Dyfnwal himself, and Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim.[51]
  6. ^ If Dyfnwal's father is identical to the Cumbrian king who fought at the Battle of Brunanburh, he would have been allied to Amlaíb mac Gofraid in this conflict.[58] The latter may have been the father of Maccus mac Amlaíb, an otherwise unknown figure said to have slain Eiríkr Haraldsson at Stainmore in 954.[59]
  7. ^ There is reason to suspect that Eiríkr blóðøx and Eiríkr Haraldsson have been conflated,[69] and that the latter man was actually a member of the insular Uí Ímair.[70] For example, Scandinavian sources fail to accord Eiríkr blóðøx an insular wife as laid out by Life of St Cathróe. The record of this marriage is some of the evidence hinting that Eiríkr blóðøx has been erroneously linked with Northumbria since the twelfth century.[71]
  8. ^ The ritual blinding of kings was not an unknown act in contemporary Britain and Ireland,[80] and it is possible that Edmund may have also meant to deprive Dyfnwal of a royal heir.[81]
  9. Domnall ua Néill, King of Tara.[171]
  10. ^ Two of the kings are accorded names of uncertain meaning.[175]
  11. mud flats between the River Esk and the Solway Firth,[184] it would reveal that what is today Cumberland had fallen outwith Cumbrian royal authority and into the hands of the English.[185]
  12. ^ According to the Life of St Cathróe, when Dyfnwal escorted Cathróe to the frontier of his realm, the latter was then escorted by a certain Gunderic to the domain of Erich in York.[201] It is possible that Gunderic is identical to Thored's father, and identical to the Gunner who appears in charter evidence from 931–963.[202]
  13. ^ This charter is composed of Latin and Old English text. The document may be evidence of Scottish and Cumbrian submission to the English. For example, in one place, the text reads in Latin: "I, Edgar, ruler of the beloved island of Albion, subjected to us of the rule of the Scots and Cumbrians and the Britons and of all regions round about ...". The corresponding Old English text reads: "I, Edgar, exalted as king over the English people by His [God's] grace, and He has now subjected to my authority the Scots and Cumbrians and also the Britons and all that this island has inside ...".[218]

Citations

  1. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2016) § 975.3; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 975.3; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  2. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. xiii, 184, 184 n. 17; Koch (2006); Bruford (2000) pp. 64, 65 n. 76; Schrijver (1995) p. 81.
  3. ^ Busse (2006c).
  4. ^ Snyder (2003).
  5. ^ a b Charles-Edwards (2013b).
  6. ^ Minard (2012); Clarkson (2010); Breeze (2007); Busse (2006c); Minard (2006); Thornton (2001).
  7. ^ a b c Macquarrie (2004a).
  8. ^ Downham (2007); Downham (2003).
  9. ^ Busse (2006b); Busse (2006c).
  10. ^ Keynes (2015); McGuigan (2015b); Williams (2014); Walker (2013); Minard (2012); Breeze (2007); Minard (2006); Broun (2004a); Macquarrie (2004b); Duncan (2002); Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991); Hudson (1994).
  11. ^ Clarkson (2014).
  12. ^ Minard (2012); Minard (2006); Jayakumar (2002); Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991).
  13. ^ Duncan (2002).
  14. ^ Hicks (2003); Duncan (2002).
  15. ^ Cannon (2015); Williams (2004c); Breeze (2007); Snyder (2003).
  16. ^ Matthews (2007).
  17. ^ Breeze (2007); Hudson (1996); Hudson (1991).
  18. ^ Broun (2015a); Edmonds (2015); Keynes (2015); Clarkson (2014); Edmonds (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b); Clarkson (2012a); Minard (2012); Oram (2011); Clarkson (2010); Woolf (2009); Breeze (2007); Downham (2007); Woolf (2007); Busse (2006c); Minard (2006); Broun (2004d); Macquarrie (2004a); Macquarrie (2004b); Hicks (2003); Thornton (2001); Macquarrie (1998); Woolf (1998) p. 190; Hudson (1994).
  19. ^ Woolf (2007); Hicks (2003); Clancy (2002); Macquarrie (1998).
  20. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 8; Clancy (2006).
  21. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 44; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 480; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 21; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 20; Davies (2009) p. 73; Downham (2007) pp. 66, 142, 162; Clancy (2006); Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) p. 8.
  22. ^ Driscoll, ST (2015) p. 5; Edmonds (2015) p. 44; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 480–481; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 26; Clancy (2006); Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) p. 8.
  23. ^ Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 5, 7; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 13; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 22; Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 8, 10.
  24. ^ Foley (2017); Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 5, 7; Clarkson (2014) chs. 1 ¶ 23, 3 ¶ 11–12; Edmonds (2014) p. 201; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 480–481; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 22; Davies (2009) p. 73; Oram (2008) p. 169; Downham (2007) p. 169; Clancy (2006); Driscoll, S (2006); Forsyth (2005) p. 32; Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 8, 10; Driscoll, ST (2003) pp. 81–82; Hicks (2003) pp. 32, 34; Driscoll, ST (2001a); Driscoll, ST (2001b); Driscoll, ST (1998) p. 112.
  25. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 480–481.
  26. ^ a b Anderson, AO (1922) p. 478; Stevenson, J (1856) p. 100; Stevenson, J (1835) p. 34; Cotton MS Faustina B IX (n.d.).
  27. ^ Dumville (2018) p. 118; Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 6–7; Edmonds (2015) p. 44; James (2013) pp. 71–72; Parsons (2011) p. 123; Davies (2009) p. 73; Downham (2007) pp. 160–161, 161 n. 146; Woolf (2007) p. 153; Breeze (2006) pp. 327, 331; Clancy (2006); Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 9–10; Hicks (2003) pp. 35–37, 36 n. 78.
  28. ^ Dumville (2018) pp. 72, 110, 118; Edmonds (2015) pp. 44, 53; Charles-Edwards (2013a) p. 20; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 481; Parsons (2011) p. 138 n. 62; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 10; Davies (2009) p. 73, 73 n. 40; Downham (2007) p. 165; Clancy (2006); Todd (2005) p. 96; Stenton (1963) p. 328.
  29. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 15; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 481–482; Breeze (2006) pp. 327, 331; Hicks (2003) pp. 35–36, 36 n. 78; Woolf (2001); Macquarrie (1998) p. 19; Fellows-Jensen (1991) p. 80.
  30. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 481–482.
  31. ^ Edmonds (2015) pp. 50–51; Molyneaux (2015) p. 15; Edmonds (2014); Davies (2009) p. 73; Edmonds (2009) p. 44; Clancy (2006).
  32. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 154–155.
  33. ^ Clancy (2006).
  34. ^ Edmonds (2015) pp. 50–51; Edmonds (2014) pp. 201–202; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 2.
  35. ^ Edmonds (2015) pp. 50–52; Edmonds (2014) pp. 199–200, 204–205.
  36. ^ Edmonds (2014).
  37. ^ James (2013) p. 72; James (2011); James (2009) p. 144, 144 n. 27; Millar (2009) p. 164.
  38. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 140; Saltair na Rann (2011) §§ 2373–2376; Hudson (1994) pp. 101, 174 nn. 7–9; Mac Eoin (1961) p. 53 §§ 2373–2376, 55–56; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 502 (n.d.); Saltair na Rann (n.d.) §§ 2373–2376.
  39. ^ Hudson (2005) pp. 69, 220 n. 46; Hudson (1996) p. 102; Mac Eoin (1961).
  40. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 140; Saltair na Rann (2011) §§ 2373–2376; Hudson (2002) p. 36; Hudson (1996) p. 102; Hudson (1994) pp. 101, 174 nn. 7–9; Hudson (1991) p. 147; Saltair na Rann (n.d.) §§ 2373–2376.
  41. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Minard (2012); Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Minard (2006); Macquarrie (1998) p. 6; Hudson (1994) p. 173 genealogy 6.
  42. ^ Macquarrie (1998) pp. 14–15.
  43. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 6, 16; Hudson (1994) p. 173 genealogy 6.
  44. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Woolf (2007) p. 238 tab. 6.4; Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 6, 16; Hudson (1994) p. 173 genealogy 6.
  45. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Woolf (2007) p. 236, 238 tab. 6.4; Broun (2004d) pp. 128 n. 66, 135 tab.
  46. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 44.
  47. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 67 n. 65; Arnold (1882) p. 76 bk. 2 ch. 18; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 669 ch. 33.
  48. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 281; Oram (2011) ch. 2; Duncan (2002) p. 23 n. 53; Macquarrie (1998) p. 14; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 103; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 7.
  49. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 67 n. 65; Anderson, AO (1908) pp. 70–71, 71 n. 3; Arnold (1885) p. 93 ch. 83; Arnold (1882) p. 76 bk. 2 ch. 18; Stevenson, J (1855) pp. 482, 669 ch. 33.
  50. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 67.
  51. ^ Minard (2006).
  52. ^ Downham (2013) p. 202; Irvine (2004) p. 55; Thorpe (1861) p. 215.
  53. ^ Evans (2015) p. 150; Keynes (2015) p. 111; McGuigan (2015b) p. 98; Molyneaux (2015) p. 24, 24 n. 30; Clarkson (2014) chs. 1 ¶ 25, 6 ¶¶ 4–5; Edmonds (2014) pp. 205–206; Walker (2013) ch. 3 ¶ 51; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 10 ¶ 25; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24; Broun (2004d) p. 127; Macquarrie (2004a); Macquarrie (2004b); Downham (2003) p. 27; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 15–16; Woolf (1998) p. 190; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 8; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 441; Skene (1867) p. 116; Colganvm (1645) p. 497 § xvii.
  54. ^ Molyneaux (2015) p. 24, 24 n. 30; Edmonds (2014) p. 206 n. 59; Hicks (2003) p. 38.
  55. ^ Edmonds (2014) p. 206 n. 59; Hicks (2003) p. 38.
  56. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 5; Edmonds (2014) p. 206 n. 59; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 10 ¶ 25; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24.
  57. ^ Cassell's History of England (1909) p. 49.
  58. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 281; Hudson (2004); Duncan (2002) p. 23 n. 53; Macquarrie (1998) p. 14.
  59. ^ Downham (2007) pp. 120–121, 121 n. 79; Woolf (2007) p. 190; Hudson (2004).
  60. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 431–432, 431 n. 6; Skene (1867) p. 109; Colganvm (1645) pp. 495 § vi, 502–503 n. 42, 503 n. 43.
  61. ^ a b Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24.
  62. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24; Macquarrie (2004a).
  63. ^ Clarkson (2012a) ch. 10 ¶ 25; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24.
  64. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 4–6, 6 n. 6; Edmonds (2014) pp. 205–206; Downham (2013) pp. 187, 203; Downham (2007) p. 119; Woolf (2007) pp. 187–188; Costambeys (2004); Macquarrie (2004a); Woolf (1998) p. 193 n. 18; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 441; Skene (1867) p. 116; Colganvm (1645) p. 497 § xvii.
  65. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 24; Woolf (2007) pp. 187–188; Macquarrie (2004a); Woolf (2002) p. 39; Woolf (1998).
  66. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 187–188.
  67. ^ Woolf (1998) p. 193 n. 18.
  68. ^ Downham (2003) pp. 43, 49.
  69. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 281; Jakobsson (2016) p. 173; McGuigan (2015a) p. 31, 31 n. 48; Downham (2013); Downham (2007) pp. 115–120, 120 n. 74; Woolf (2007) pp. 187–188; Woolf (2002) p. 39.
  70. ^ Naismith (2017) pp. 281, 300–301; McGuigan (2015a) p. 31, 31 n. 48; Downham (2013); Downham (2007) pp. 119–120, 120 n. 74; Woolf (2002) p. 39.
  71. ^ Downham (2013); Downham (2007) pp. 115–120, 120 n. 74.
  72. ^ O'Keeffe (2001) p. 80; Whitelock (1996) p. 224, 224 n. 2; Thorpe (1861) p. 212; Cotton MS Tiberius B I (n.d.).
  73. ^ Gough-Cooper (2015a) p. 27 § a509.3; Keynes (2015) pp. 95–96; Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 14, 6 n. 19; Halloran (2011) p. 308, 308 n. 40; Woolf (2010) p. 228, 228 n. 27; Downham (2007) p. 153; Woolf (2007) p. 183; Downham (2003) p. 42; Hicks (2003) p. 39; Davidson (2002) p. 114; Alcock (1975–1976) p. 106; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 449.
  74. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 15; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 25; Downham (2003) p. 42; Hicks (2003) p. 39; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 449; Rhŷs (1890) p. 261; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 20–21.
  75. ^ Gough-Cooper (2015a) p. 27 n. 191; Keynes (2015) pp. 95–96; McGuigan (2015b) pp. 83, 139–140; McLeod (2015) p. 4; Molyneaux (2015) pp. 33, 52–53, 76; Clarkson (2014) chs. 1 ¶ 10, 6 ¶ 11, 6 n. 18, 6 ¶ 20; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 5; Halloran (2011) p. 307, 307 n. 36; Molyneaux (2011) pp. 66, 66 n. 27, 69, 70, 73, 88; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶¶ 25–27; Woolf (2010) p. 228, 228 n. 26; Downham (2007) p. 153; Woolf (2007) p. 183; Clancy (2006); Williams (2004c); Downham (2003) p. 42; Hicks (2003) p. 16 n. 35; Davidson (2002) pp. 114–115, 114 n. 29; Duncan (2002) p. 23; Thornton (2001) p. 78, 78 n. 114; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 80; Williams (1999) p. 86; Whitelock (1996) p. 224; Smyth (1989) pp. 205–206; Rose (1982) pp. 119, 122; Alcock (1975–1976) p. 106; Stenton (1963) p. 355; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 74, 74 n. 3; Thorpe (1861) pp. 212–213.
  76. ^ Holland (2016) ch. Malmesbury ¶ 7; Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 11, 6 n. 20; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 74 nn. 4–5; Arnold (1879) p. 162 bk. 5 ch. 21; Forester (1853) p. 172 bk. 5.
  77. ^ Firth (2016) pp. 24–25; McGuigan (2015b) p. 139; Molyneaux (2015) pp. 33, 61, 76; Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 12–13, 6 n. 21; Halloran (2011) p. 308; Molyneaux (2011) pp. 66, 66 n. 27, 70; Woolf (2007) p. 183; Duncan (2002) p. 23; Davidson (2002) p. 114; Thornton (2001) p. 78, 78 n. 114; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 12; Stenton (1963) p. 355; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 74 n. 5; Giles (1849) pp. 252–253; Coxe (1841) p. 398.
  78. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 139; Luard (2012) p. 500; Halloran (2011) p. 308, 308 n. 41; Yonge (1853) p. 473.
  79. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 14; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 25.
  80. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 n. 23.
  81. ^ Clarkson (2014) chs. 6 ¶ 14, 7 ¶ 5.
  82. ^ Holland (2016) ch. Malmesbury ¶ 5; Molyneaux (2015) pp. 77–78; Woolf (2007) p. 183 p. 183.
  83. ^ Oram (2011) ch. 2.
  84. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 183.
  85. ^ Molyneaux (2015) p. 31; Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 11; Woolf (2007) pp. 182–183; Downham (2003) p. 41; Whitelock (1996) p. 224.
  86. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 16; Woolf (2007) pp. 182–183.
  87. ^ Woolf (2002) p. 38.
  88. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 16.
  89. ^ Fulton (2000) pp. 11, 13.
  90. ^ Downham (2003) p. 42; Smyth (1989) pp. 205–206.
  91. ^ Halloran (2011) p. 307.
  92. ^ Molyneaux (2015) pp. 33, 77–78.
  93. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 5, 55 n. 61; Clarkson (2010) ch. 10 ¶ 11; Proceedings (1947) pp. 221–225; Collingwood (1923).
  94. ^ Halloran (2011) p. 307; Woolf (2007) pp. 183–184.
  95. ^ McGuigan (2015b) pp. 139–140; Davidson (2002) p. 115 n. 32; Hudson (1994) pp. 84–85.
  96. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 20.
  97. ^ Duncan (2002) p. 23.
  98. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 20; Woolf (2007) p. 184.
  99. ^ Davidson (2002) p. 116, 116 n. 36.
  100. ^ Parsons (2011) p. 129; Woolf (2007) p. 184.
  101. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 21; Woolf (2007) p. 184.
  102. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 139; Giles (1849) pp. 253–254; Coxe (1841) p. 399.
  103. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 20; Molyneaux (2011) p. 76; Williams (2004c); Downham (2003) p. 42; Smyth (1989) pp. 205–206.
  104. ^ Downham (2007) p. 153.
  105. ^ Downham (2007) p. 153; Fulton (2000) p. 13.
  106. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 952.2; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 952.2; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 451; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  107. ^ McGuigan (2015b) pp. 83–84; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 28; Williams (2004b); Anderson, AO (1922) p. 450.
  108. ^ McGuigan (2015b) pp. 83–84; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 28; Davidson (2002) pp. 116–117; Fulton (2000) p. 14.
  109. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 28; Downham (2007) pp. 154–155; Davidson (2002) p. 131, 131 n. 103; Hudson (1998) pp. 150–151, 158; Hudson (1994) pp. 86–87; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  110. ^ Davidson (2002) p. 131; Hudson (1994) pp. 86–87.
  111. ^ Davidson (2002) pp. 131–132.
  112. ^ Annals of the Four Masters (2013a) § 950.14; Annals of the Four Masters (2013b) § 950.14; Downham (2007) p. 155; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 451 n. 4.
  113. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 952.2; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 10; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 28; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 952.2; Downham (2007) pp. 155, 167; Woolf (2007) p. 188–189; Davidson (2002) pp. 60, 132, 132 n. 108; Hudson (1994) p. 87; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 451.
  114. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 28; Woolf (2007) pp. 188–189.
  115. ^ Downham (2007) p. 155; Woolf (2007) pp. 188–189; Costambeys (2004); Davidson (2002) pp. 132–133; Hudson (1994) p. 87.
  116. ^ Rhŷs (1890) p. 262; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 26–27; Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.); Oxford Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.).
  117. ^ Keynes (2015) pp. 84–85 fig. 1, 100–101, 100 n. 131; Molyneaux (2015) pp. 57 n. 45, 212, 212 n. 83; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 515 tab. 16.1, 516–517; Davidson (2002) pp. 118–119; Pierquin (1912) pp. 294–295 § 86, 303–304 § 94; Birch (1893) pp. 38–40 § 883; Birch (1887) pp. 576–578 § 815; Cadfan 1 (n.d.); S 544 (n.d.); S 520 (n.d.).
  118. ^ Keynes (2015) pp. 96 n. 110, 107.
  119. ^ Keynes (2015) pp. 98–99, 119–120; Keynes (2001) p. 70; Pierquin (1912) pp. 294–295 § 86; Birch (1887) pp. 576–578 § 815; S 520 (n.d.).
  120. ^ Keynes (2015) p. 120; Keynes (2001) p. 72; Birch (1893) pp. 242–244 § 1040; S 677 (n.d.).
  121. ^ Keynes (2015) p. 107.
  122. ^ a b Howlett (2000) p. 65; Skene (1867) p. 131; Lat. 4126 (n.d.) fol. 29v.
  123. ^ Broun (2004b); Hudson (1994) pp. 88–89.
  124. ^ Taylor (2016) pp. 8–9; Broun (2015b); Broun (2004b); Davidson (2002) p. 133.
  125. ^ Taylor (2016) pp. 8–9; McGuigan (2015b) pp. 148–149; Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 35; Hudson (1998) pp. 151, 159; Duncan (2002) p. 23; Hudson (1994) pp. 89–90; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 468; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  126. ^ Hudson (1994) p. 89; Arnold (1885) p. 197 ch. 159; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 557.
  127. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 35; Hudson (1994) pp. 89–90.
  128. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 35–36; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 29; Hudson (1998) p. 159 n. 57; Hudson (1996) pp. 48 § 160, 48 § 162, 88 § 160, 88 § 162, 88 n. 97; Hudson (1994) pp. 89–90; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 46 § 158; 46–47 § 160; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 471; Skene (1867) p. 94.
  129. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 35–36; Hudson (1994) pp. 89–90.
  130. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 36.
  131. ^ Anderson, AO (1922) p. 476; Stevenson, J (1835) p. 226; Cotton MS Faustina B IX (n.d.).
  132. ^ Broun (2004a).
  133. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 6; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 32; Hicks (2003) pp. 40–41; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16 n. 3; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 476 n. 2.
  134. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 6; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 28; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 34.
  135. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 6; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 34.
  136. ^ Broun (2015a); Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 6; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶¶ 28–29; Oram (2011) chs. 2, 5; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 34; Busse (2006b); Busse (2006c); Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.; Macquarrie (2004b); Macquarrie (1998) pp. 6, 16; Hudson (1994) pp. 173 genealogy 6, 174 n. 10; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 92, 104.
  137. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 32; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 476, 476 n. 1; Skene (1867) p. 151.
  138. ^ Broun (2005) pp. 87–88 n. 37; Skene (1867) p. 179.
  139. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶¶ 32–33; Woolf (2007) p. 204; Macquarrie (2004b); Hicks (2003) pp. 40–41; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 476; Stevenson, J (1835) p. 226.
  140. ^ Hudson (1994) pp. 93, 174 n. 10; Skene (1872) pp. 161–162 bk. 4 ch. 27; Skene (1871) pp. 169–170 bk 4.
  141. ^ Macquarrie (2004b); Thornton (2001) p. 67 n. 66.
  142. ^ Macquarrie (2004b).
  143. ^ Hudson (1998) p. 160 n. 71; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Hudson (1996) pp. 49 § 168, 88 § 168; Hudson (1994) p. 93; Anderson, AO (1930) p. 48 § 166; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 477; Skene (1867) pp. 95–96.
  144. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶¶ 16–18, 24; Hudson (1998) pp. 151, 159; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 468; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  145. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 24.
  146. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2016) § 977.4; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 977.4; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  147. ^ Broun (2004a); Broun (2004c).
  148. ^ Williams (2014); Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 30; Oram (2011) ch. 5; Woolf (2009) p. 259; Busse (2006a); Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 35; Broun (2004c).
  149. ^ a b Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25; Woolf (2009) p. 259.
  150. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25.
  151. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 35; Broun (2004c).
  152. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 140; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 35; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 35.
  153. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 67 n. 66.
  154. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 35.
  155. ^ Hicks (2003) p. 44 n. 107.
  156. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 149; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 30; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 37; Broun (2007) p. 54; Hicks (2003) pp. 41–42; Davidson (2002) pp. 147–148, 147 n. 167; Hudson (1998) pp. 151, 161; Hudson (1994) p. 96; Breeze (1992); Anderson, AO (1922) p. 512; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  157. ^ Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 30; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 37.
  158. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 12; Edmonds (2014) p. 206; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 29; Oram (2011) ch. 2; Woolf (2009) p. 259; Breeze (2007) pp. 154–155; Downham (2007) pp. 124, 167; Woolf (2007) p. 208; Macquarrie (2004b); Williams (2004a); Hicks (2003) p. 42; Davidson (2002) p. 143; Jayakumar (2002) p. 34; Thornton (2001) pp. 54–55, 67; Williams (1999) p. 88; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 104, 124; Stenton (1963) p. 324.
  159. ^ Firth (2018) p. 48; Holland (2016) ch. Malmesbury ¶ 6; McGuigan (2015b) pp. 143–144, 144 n. 466; Molyneaux (2015) p. 34; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶¶ 9–10, 7 n. 11; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 30; Molyneaux (2011) pp. 66, 69, 88; Breeze (2007) p. 153; Downham (2007) p. 124; Matthews (2007) p. 10; Woolf (2007) pp. 207–208; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 218; Irvine (2004) p. 59; Karkov (2004) p. 108; Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) pp. 138, 140, 140 n. 140, 144; Thornton (2001) p. 50; Baker (2000) pp. 83–84; Williams (1999) pp. 88, 116, 191 n. 50; Whitelock (1996) pp. 229–230; Hudson (1994) p. 97; Stenton (1963) p. 364; Anderson, AO (1908) pp. 75–76; Stevenson, WH (1898); Thorpe (1861) pp. 225–227.
  160. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 61 n. 94; Keynes (2015) pp. 113–114; McGuigan (2015b) pp. 143–144; Edmonds (2014) p. 206, 206 n. 60; Williams (2014); Molyneaux (2011) p. 67; Breeze (2007) p. 154; Downham (2007) p. 124; Matthews (2007) p. 10; Karkov (2004) p. 108; Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) pp. 140–141, 141 n. 145, 145; Thornton (2001) p. 51; Williams (1999) pp. 191 n. 50, 203 n. 71; Hudson (1994) pp. 97–98; Jennings (1994) pp. 213–214; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 479 n. 1; Stevenson, WH (1898); Skeat (1881) pp. 468–469.
  161. ^ Firth (2018) p. 48; Edmonds (2015) p. 61 n. 94; McGuigan (2015b) pp. 143–144, n. 466; Keynes (2015) p. 114; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶¶ 12–14; Edmonds (2014) p. 206; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 30; Molyneaux (2011) pp. 66–67; Breeze (2007) p. 153; Downham (2007) p. 124; Matthews (2007) p. 11; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 218; Karkov (2004) p. 108; Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) pp. 13, 134, 134 n. 111, 142, 145; Thornton (2001) pp. 57–58; Williams (1999) pp. 116, 191 n. 50; Whitelock (1996) p. 230 n. 1; Hudson (1994) p. 97; Jennings (1994) p. 213; Smyth (1989) pp. 226–227; Stenton (1963) p. 364; Anderson, AO (1908) pp. 76–77; Stevenson, WH (1898); Forester (1854) pp. 104–105; Stevenson, J (1853) pp. 247–248; Thorpe (1848) pp. 142–143.
  162. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 61 n. 94; Keynes (2015) p. 114; McGuigan (2015b) p. 144, n. 466; Edmonds (2014) p. 206; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Molyneaux (2011) pp. 66–67; Breeze (2007) p. 153; Downham (2007) p. 124; Matthews (2007) pp. 10–11; Karkov (2004) p. 108, 108 n. 123; Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) pp. 143, 145; Thornton (2001) pp. 59–60; Hudson (1994) p. 97; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 77 n. 1; Stevenson, WH (1898); Giles (1847) p. 147 bk. 2 ch. 8; Hardy (1840) p. 236 bk. 2 ch. 148.
  163. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 144, 144 n. 469; Davidson (2002) p. 142, 142 n. 149, 145; Thornton (2001) pp. 60–61; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 76 n. 2; Arnold (1885) p. 372.
  164. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 60; Luard (1872) pp. 466–467.
  165. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 60; Giles (1849) pp. 263–264; Coxe (1841) p. 415.
  166. ^ Luard (2012) p. 513; Thornton (2001) p. 60; Yonge (1853) p. 484.
  167. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Luard (2012) p. 513; Thornton (2001) pp. 66–67; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 77 n. 1; Luard (1872) pp. 466–467; Yonge (1853) p. 484; Giles (1849) pp. 263–264; Giles (1847) p. 147 bk. 2 ch. 8; Coxe (1841) p. 415; Hardy (1840) p. 236 bk. 2 ch. 148.
  168. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 12; Edmonds (2014) p. 206; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 543–544; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶¶ 30, 36; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 29; Minard (2012); Aird (2009) p. 309; Breeze (2007) pp. 154–155; Downham (2007) p. 167; Minard (2006); Macquarrie (2004b); Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) pp. 142–143; Duncan (2002) p. 23 n. 53; Jayakumar (2002) p. 34; Thornton (2001) pp. 66–67; Williams (1999) p. 116; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 9; Jennings (1994) p. 215; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 104, 124; Stenton (1963) p. 324.
  169. ^ Luard (2012) p. 513; Thornton (2001) p. 67; Luard (1872) pp. 466–467; Yonge (1853) p. 484; Giles (1849) pp. 263–264; Coxe (1841) p. 415.
  170. ^ Hicks (2003) p. 42; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 478–479; Stevenson, J (1856) p. 100; Stevenson, J (1835) p. 34.
  171. ^ Davidson (2002) pp. 146–147.
  172. ^ Cassell's History of England (1909) p. 53.
  173. ^ Williams (2004a).
  174. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 74.
  175. ^ Thornton (2001) pp. 67–74.
  176. ^ Davidson (2002) pp. 66–67, 140; Davidson (2001) p. 208; Thornton (2001) p. 77–78.
  177. ^ Hicks (2003) p. 16 n. 35; Davidson (2002) pp. 115–116, 140; Davidson (2001) p. 208; Thornton (2001) pp. 77–78; Whitelock (1996) p. 224; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 74; Thorpe (1861) pp. 212–213.
  178. ^ Keynes (2008) p. 51; Woolf (2007) p. 211; Thornton (2001) pp. 65–66; Anderson, MO (1960) p. 104; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 77; Arnold (1885) p. 382.
  179. ^ Anderson, MO (1960) p. 107, 107 n. 1; Giles (1849) p. 264; Coxe (1841) p. 416.
  180. ^ Luard (2012) p. 513; Thornton (2001) pp. 65–66; Anderson, MO (1960) p. 107, 107 n. 1; Yonge (1853) p. 485.
  181. ^ Anderson, MO (1960) p. 107, 107 nn. 1, 4; Anderson, AO (1908) pp. 77–78 n. 6; Luard (1872) pp. 467–468.
  182. ^ Downham (2007) p. 125; Williams (2004a); Davidson (2002) p. 5; Thornton (2001) pp. 78–79.
  183. ^ Barrow (2001) p. 89.
  184. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 147; Aird (2009) p. 309; Davidson (2002) p. 149, 149 n. 172; Duncan (2002) p. 24; Hudson (1994) p. 140; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 77; Arnold (1885) p. 382.
  185. ^ Duncan (2002) pp. 24–25.
  186. ^ O'Keeffe (2001) p. 81; Whitelock (1996) p. 230; Thorpe (1861) p. 226; Cotton MS Tiberius B I (n.d.).
  187. ^ Aird (2009) p. 309; Woolf (2009) p. 259; Breeze (2007) p. 155; Downham (2007) p. 124; Woolf (2007) p. 208; Broun (2004c); Davidson (2002) p. 142.
  188. ^ a b c d Woolf (2007) p. 208.
  189. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 208–209.
  190. ^ Duncan (2002) pp. 21–22; Hudson (1994) p. 93.
  191. ^ a b c Matthews (2007) p. 25.
  192. ^ Jennings (2015); Wadden (2015) pp. 27–28; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 12; Williams (2014); Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 543; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 31; Aird (2009) p. 309; Woolf (2009) p. 259; Breeze (2007) p. 155; Downham (2007) pp. 124–125, 167, 222; Matthews (2007) p. 25; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 218; Davidson (2002) pp. 143, 146, 151; Jayakumar (2002) p. 34; Williams (1999) p. 116; Hudson (1994) p. 97; Jennings (1994) pp. 213–214; Stenton (1963) p. 364.
  193. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 12; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 544; Breeze (2007) p. 156; Downham (2007) pp. 125 n. 10, 222; Matthews (2007) p. 25; Davidson (2002) pp. 143, 146, 151; Jayakumar (2002) p. 34.
  194. ^ Gough-Cooper (2015b) p. 43 § b993.1; Williams (2014); Downham (2007) p. 190; Matthews (2007) pp. 9, 25; Woolf (2007) pp. 206–207; Davidson (2002) p. 151; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 478–479 n. 6; Rhŷs (1890) p. 262; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 24–25.
  195. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 545; Downham (2007) pp. 222–223; Matthews (2007) pp. 9, 15; Woolf (2007) pp. 207–208.
  196. ^ Downham (2007) pp. 126–127, 222–223; Woolf (2007) p. 208.
  197. ^ Baker (2000) p. 83; Cotton MS Domitian A VIII (n.d.).
  198. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 545; Davidson (2002) p. 147.
  199. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 545.
  200. ^ Williams (2014); Williams (2004a); Whitelock (1996) p. 229; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 472; Thorpe (1861) p. 223.
  201. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 98; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 441; Skene (1867) p. 116; Colganvm (1645) p. 497 § xvii.
  202. ^ McGuigan (2015b) pp. 98–99.
  203. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 26.
  204. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 975.2; The Annals of Ulster (2008) 975.2; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  205. ^ Edmonds (2014) p. 208; Broun (2007) p. 94 n. 62; Busse (2006c).
  206. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17; Williams (2014); Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶¶ 30, 36; Minard (2012); Oram (2011) ch. 2; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 41; Woolf (2007) p. 184; Busse (2006c); Minard (2006); Broun (2004d) pp. 128–129; Macquarrie (2004b); Davidson (2002) pp. 39, 146; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 15–16; Hudson (1994) pp. 101, 174 n. 8; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 104.
  207. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17; Williams (2014); Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 35; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 41; Woolf (2007) p. 208; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 124.
  208. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 975.2; The Annals of Tigernach (2016) § 975.3; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17, 7 n. 19; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 36; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 41; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 975.2; Woolf (2007) p. 184; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 975.3; Broun (2004d) pp. 128–129; Macquarrie (2004b); Hicks (2003) p. 42; Davidson (2002) pp. 39, 146; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 15–16; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 8; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 480, 480 n. 7.
  209. ^ Matthews (2007) p. 25; Jones; Williams; Pughe (1870) p. 658.
  210. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17, 7 n. 19; Clancy (2002) p. 22; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 15–16; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 8; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 480; Rhŷs (1890) p. 262; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 26–27.
  211. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 10 ¶ 27.
  212. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 36; Oram (2011) ch. 2.
  213. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2016) § 997.3; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 997.3; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.).
  214. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 30; Busse (2006c); Thornton (2001) p. 55.
  215. ^ Williams (2014); Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 30; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 29; Macquarrie (2004); Davidson (2002) p. 146; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 104.
  216. ^ McGuigan (2015b) p. 101, 101 n. 302; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 5, 7 n. 3; Birch (1893) pp. 557–560 § 1266; Thorpe (1865) pp. 237–243; Malcolm 4 (n.d.); S 779 (n.d.).
  217. ^ Molyneaux (2015) p. 57 n. 45; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 5; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 544; Molyneaux (2011) p. 66; Keynes (2008) p. 50 n. 232; Davidson (2002) pp. 147, 147 n. 166, 152; Thornton (2001) p. 71; Hudson (1994) p. 174 n. 9.
  218. ^ Thornton (2001) p. 52, 52 n. 6; Birch (1893) pp. 557–560 § 1266; Thorpe (1865) pp. 237–243; S 779 (n.d.).
  219. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 12; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 9 ¶ 29; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 35.
  220. ^ Hicks (2003) p. 42.
  221. ^ Anderson, AO (1922) p. 550 n. 2; Rhŷs (1890) p. 264; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 34–35; Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.); Oxford Jesus College MS. 111 (n.d.).
  222. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 41.
  223. ^ a b Clarkson (2014) ch. 7 ¶ 17; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 41; Woolf (2007) pp. 222, 233, 236.
  224. ^ Gough-Cooper (2015b) p. 46 § b1036.1; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Woolf (2007) p. 236; Broun (2004d) p. 128, 128 n. 66; Hicks (2003) p. 43; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 550.
  225. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Broun (2004d) p. 128 n. 66; Hicks (2003) p. 44 n. 107; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 550 n. 2; Rhŷs (1890) p. 264; Williams Ab Ithel (1860) pp. 34–35.
  226. ^ Broun (2004d) p. 128 n. 66; Jones; Williams; Pughe (1870) p. 660.
  227. ^ Broun (2004d) p. 128 n. 66; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 16–17.
  228. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Woolf (2007) pp. 236, 238 tab. 6.4; Broun (2004d) pp. 128 n. 66, 135 tab.; Hicks (2003) p. 44, 44 n. 107; Duncan (2002) pp. 29, 41.
  229. ^ Cannon (2015); Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 22–27; Clarkson (2010) ch. 10 ¶ 11; Hicks (2003) pp. 42, 216; Winchester (2000) pp. 33–34.
  230. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶¶ 22–27.
  231. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 24; Hicks (2003) p. 43 n. 103.
  232. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 24; Ogilby (1699) p. 179.
  233. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6 ¶ 24.
  234. ^ Pugmire (2004) pp. 112, 115 fig. 2; Winchester (2000) pp. 33–34.
  235. ^ Winchester (2000) pp. 33–34.
  236. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 54.
  237. ^ Hicks (2003) pp. 60, 147, 147 n. 20.
  238. ^ Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) p. 7; Hicks (2003) p. 60.

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Media related to Dyfnwal ab Owain at Wikimedia Commons

Dyfnwal ab Owain
 Died: 975
Regnal titles
Preceded by
King of Strathclyde
1
930s–970s 		Unknown
Last known title holder:
Máel Coluim2
Notes and references
1. There is evidence to suggest that Cadmon reigned as king in the 940s after Edmund's campaign of 945.
2. Whilst Máel Coluim was certainly associated with the kingship by 973, it is uncertain when he gained it. Dyfnwal could have been succeeded by Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal before 971.
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