Dysprosium

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Dysprosium, 66Dy
Dysprosium
Pronunciation/dɪsˈproʊziəm/ ​(dis-PROH-zee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Dy)
Dysprosium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Dy
↓
Cf
terbium ← dysprosium → holmium
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization280 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity27.7 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1378 1523 (1704) (1954) (2304) (2831)
Atomic properties
Lecoq de Boisbaudran (1886)
First isolationGeorges Urbain (1905)
Isotopes of dysprosium
Main isotopes[6] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
154Dy synth 1.40×106 y[7] α
150Gd
156Dy 0.056%
stable
158Dy 0.095% stable
160Dy 2.33% stable
161Dy 18.9% stable
162Dy 25.5% stable
163Dy 24.9% stable
164Dy 28.3% stable
165Dy synth 2.334 h β− 165Ho
 Category: Dysprosium
| references

Dysprosium is a

abundant
of which is 164Dy.

Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by

magnetostrictive
material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.

Characteristics

Physical properties

Dysprosium sample

Dysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.[8]

Dysprosium and

body-centered cubic phase at 1,654 K (1,381 °C).[3]

Chemical properties

Dysprosium metal retains its luster in dry air but it will tarnish slowly in moist air, and it burns readily to form dysprosium(III) oxide:

4 Dy + 3 O2 → 2 Dy2O3

Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water (and quickly with hot water) to form

dysprosium hydroxide
:

2 Dy (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Dy(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Dysprosium hydroxide decomposes to form DyO(OH) at elevated temperatures, which then decomposes again to dysprosium(III) oxide.[12]

Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C:[citation needed]

2 Dy (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 DyF3 (s) [green]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 DyCl3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Br2 (l) → 2 DyBr3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 DyI3 (s) [green]

Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH2)9]3+ complex:[13]

2 Dy (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Dy3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−
4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.

Compounds

Dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3
See also: Dysprosium compounds

Dysprosium halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color.

magnetic, more so than iron oxide.[10]

Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH2 and DyH3; DyS, DyS2, Dy2S3 and Dy5S7; DyB2, DyB4, DyB6 and DyB12, as well as Dy3C and Dy2C3.[14]

Dysprosium carbonate, Dy2(CO3)3, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3, result from similar reactions.[15] Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy2(C2O4)3·10H2O) are both insoluble in water.[16][17] Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy2(CO3)3·2–3H2O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO3(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.[18]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of dysprosium

Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven

observationally stable
isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive.

Twenty-nine

metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes. 149Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, 149m2Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns.[19]

History

In 1878,

holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886.[20][21] His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.[9][22]

Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued[by whom?] that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[23][24]

In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas.[25]

Occurrence

Xenotime

While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many

blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.[26]

In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium).[27][28] The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L.[14]

Production

Dysprosium is obtained primarily from

flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions:[15]

3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2
3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiCl

The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities.[15]

About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year,[29] with 99% of that total produced in China.[30] Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010.[30] The price increased to $1,400/kg in 2011 but fell to $240 in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions.[31]

Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China.[32] As of November 2018 the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing 50 tonnes (49 long tons) per annum.[33][34]

According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015.[35] As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia.[36]

Applications

Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with

thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors.[9][37] Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions.[8] Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data-storage applications, such as in hard disks.[38] Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.[39]

Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium[40] to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply.[41] The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.[42]

Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material,[43] which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators,[44] and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.[45]

Dysprosium is used in

luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected.[9]

Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area. Therefore, they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst. Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr3 and NaF to 450 °C at 450 bars for 17 hours. This material is remarkably robust, surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400 °C without redissolving or aggregating.[46][47][48] Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.[49]

Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.[9][50]

Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.[51][52]

The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy3+) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.[53]

The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been

quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms.[58]

Precautions

Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas.[59] Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water.[60] Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable.[61][62] Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.[10]

Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to

mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (c.f. lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic.[9]

References

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