Early Gothic architecture
Years active | Mid-12th to mid 13th century |
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Location | France and England |
Early Gothic is a term for the first phase of Gothic style, followed by High Gothic and Late Gothic, dividing the whole Gothic era into three periods. It is defined as a style that used some principle elements of Gothic, but not all. Especially, it had no fine tracery. It marks the first phase of a division of Gothic style into three periods. If it is used for all countries, it has to be regarded that there may be special terms for the styles of single countries, such as Early English in England.
In France, where Gothic style had been initiated, another phasing has been established:
- Gothique primitif (Primary Gothic) or Gothique premier (First Gothic), from short before 1140 until short after 1180, marked by tribunes above the aisles of basilicas.[1][2]
- Gothique classique (Classic Gothic), from the 1180s to the first third of 13th century, marked by basilicas without lateral tribunes and with triforia without windows. Some buildings of this phase, like Chartres Cathedral, have to be subsumed to Early Gothic, others, like the Reims Cathedral and the western parts of Amiens Cathedral, have to be subsumed to High Gothic.
- Gothique rayonnant (Radiant or Shining Gothic), from the second third of 13th century to the first half of 14th century, marked by triforia with windows and a general preference for stained glass instead of stone walls. It forms the greater portion of High Gothic.
- Gothique flamboyant (Flaming Gothic), since mid 14th century, marked by swinging and flaming (that makes the term) forms of tracery.
The term "Early Gothic" should not be extended backward; if Durham Cathedral and other buildings with the first rib vaults in Romanesque walls are subsumed to this style, most of German Late Romanesque architecture would be Early Gothic.
Primary Gothic appeared in northern
Early English Gothic was influenced by the French style, particularly in the new choir of
Early Gothic was succeeded in the early 13th century by a new wave of larger and taller buildings, with further technical innovations, in a style later known as High Gothic.[5]
Origins
French Gothic architecture was the result of the emergence in the 12th century of a powerful French state centered in the
The Abbot of Saint-Denis, Suger, was not only a prominent religious figure but also first minister to Louis VI and Louis VII. He oversaw the royal administration when the King was absent on the Crusades. He commissioned the reconstruction of the Basilica of Saint-Denis, making it the first and most influential example of the new style in France.[6]
Basilica of Saint-Denis
The
The most original and influential step made by Suger was the creation of the
Suger was an admirer of the doctrines of the early Christian philosopher
According to Suger, every aspect of the new apse architecture had a symbolic meaning. The twelve columns separating the chapels, he wrote, represented the
The Basilica, including the upper parts of the choir and the apse, were extensively modified into the Rayonnant style in the 1230s, but the original early Gothic ambulatory and chapels can still be seen.[9]
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Ambulatory of the Basilica of Saint-Denis
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Basilica of Saint Denis, west facade (1135–40)
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Facade and portals of Basilica of Saint-Denis
Early French Gothic cathedrals
Sens Cathedral
The construction of the choir and ambulatory of Sens Cathedral began before the construction of the ambulatory of Saint-Denis. Therefore, the ambulatory is rather Romanesque than Gothic. All adjacent chapels are much later and no more Primary Gothic. But its arcades and triforia already fit the criteria of Gothic architecture.[8] It was constructed between 1135 and 1164. Different from the other cathedrals of Primary Gothic, it has no tribunes above the aisles, but triforia as one of three levels, alike some Romanesque basilicas before and Classic Gothic afterwards. It used the new six-part rib vault in the nave, giving the church exceptional width and height. Because the six-part vaults distributed the weight unevenly, the vaults were supported by alternating massive square piers and more slender round columns.[10][11][12] It had a wide impact on the Gothic style not only in France, but also in England, because its master builder, William of Sens, was invited to England and introduced Early Gothic features to the reconstructed quire of Canterbury Cathedral.
In the following centuries, all clerestories were remodelled, and the transept is Flamboyant.
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Facade of Sens Cathedral (1135–64)
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Elevation of Sens Cathedral: three levels; the tribune above the aisle, typical for Primary Gothic, is still missing.
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Radiating chapels of Sens Cathedral
Senlis Cathedral
Senlis Cathedral was built between 1153 and 1191. Its length was limited by modest budget and by the placement of the building against the city wall. Like Sens cathedral, it was composed of a nave without a transept, flanked by a single collateral. The radiating chapels of the choir are separate extensions of the ambulatory (different from Saint-Denis, whree thy form something like an outer aisle). They gave an example for Magdeburg Cathedral that was begun in 1209 and has polygonal ambulatory and chapels. The elevation of Senlis originally had four levels, including large tribunes. Like Sens, Senlis Cathedral had alternating strong and weak piers to receive the uneven thrust from the six-part rib vaults. The church underwent considerable rebuilding in the 13th and 16th century, including a new tower and new interior decorations. Many of the early Gothic features are overladen with Flamboyant and later decoration.[13] In the 16th century, the triforia disappeared, whereas the tribunes kept their Primary Gothic layout until today.
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Nave: arcades and tribunes 1153–91
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Sculpted capitals of the piers, Chapel of Sainte-Genevieve
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Buttresses of Primary Gothic, Flamboyant clerestory of C XVI
Noyon Cathedral
Noyon Cathedral, begun between 1150 and 1155, was the first of a series of famous Cathedrals to appear in Picardy, the prosperous region north of Paris. The city an important connection with French history, as the coronation site of Charlemagne and of the early French King Hugh Capet. The new cathedral still had many Romanesque features, including prominent transepts with rounded ends and deep galleries, but it introduced several Gothic innovations, including the fourth level, the triforium a narrow passageway between the ground-level gallery, the tribunes, and the top level clerestory, Noyon also used massive compound piers alternating with round columns, necessary because of the uneven weight distribution from the six-part vaults.[8] The east end has five radiating chapels and three levels of windows, creating a created a dramatic flood of light into the nave.[14]
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Choir, begun short after 1150, elevation with 4 levels: arcade, tribune, triforium, clerestory
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The alternating piers and columns of the grand arcade, which support the vaults
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Façade, 1200–1235, Classic Gothic
Laon Cathedral
Laon Cathedral was begun in 1155, in Primary Gothic style. until about 1180, the (first) choir, crossing and transept and the eastern five bays of the nave were finished. The western part of the nave and the façade followed until 1200. Therefore, the façade is already an example of Classic Gothic; Villard de Honnecourt praised the innovative upper parts of the towers. But the original choir began to decay and in 1205–1220 was replaced by the actual one. Following English examples, it has no apse, but a rectangular east end.
Laon was built upon a hilltop one hundred meters high, making it visible from a great distance. The hilltop imposed a special burden for the builders; all the stones had to be carried to the top of the hill in carts drawn by oxen. The oxen who did the work were honored by statues on the tower of the finished cathedral.[13]
Laon was also unusual because of its five towers; two on the west front, two on the transepts, and an octagonal lantern on crossing. Laon, like most early Gothic cathedrals, had four interior levels. Laon also had alternating octagonal and square piers supporting the nave, but these rested upon massive pillars made of dreamlike sections of stone, giving it greater harmony and a greater sensation of length.[15] The new cathedral was unusual in form; The apse on the east was flat, not rounded, and The choir was exceptionally long, nearly as long as the nave.[16] Another striking feature of Laon Cathedral were the three great rose windows, one on the west facade and two on the transepts. (Only the west and north windows still remain). Another unusual feature at Laon is lantern tower at the transept crossing, most likely inspired by the Norman Gothic abbey churches in Caen.[13]
Laon Cathedral gave the example for the first Gothic project in Germany, the Gothic remodeling of Limburg Cathedral, begun in the 1180s.[17][18]
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Eastern part of the nave (before 1180), towards the choir, replaced in 1205–1220.
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Façade (1180–1200)
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"English" footplan
Notre Dame de Paris
The builders covered the interior of the cathedral with six-part vaults, but unlike Sens and other the earlier cathedrals they did not use alternating piers and columns to support them. The vaults were supported instead by bundles of three uninterrupted slender columns which were received by rows massive pillars with capitals decorated with classical decoration. This gave the nave greater harmony.
The upper parts of the choir were built at about 1182 or 1185, not long before Chartres Cathedral. Its original elevations were intermediate between tree levels and four levels: above the tribunes there were no veritable triforia, but a clerestory with two levels of windows, the lower level consisted of small rose windows, and the upper level of modest pointed arched windows without tracery.
In the 13th century, when it was decided that the interior was too dark, and the upright windows were enlarged downward into the area of the small roses. Around the transept, the original design was reconstructed during the restoration by
The flying buttress made its first appearance in Paris in the early 13th century, either at Notre Dame, or perhaps earlier in the Abbey of
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Reconstructed Primary Gothic clerestories adjacent to the northern transept.
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Nave looking to the east: six-part rib vaults, clerestories remodeled after 1220, three levels only.
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West façade: rose level built at about 1220.
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Theflying buttresses of Notre Dame as they appeared in about 1220–30 (drawn by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc)
Chartres Cathedral (1194–1225)
Concerning its windows (without tracery or with plate tracery), this cathedral was still an example of Early Gothic, but its elevations were innovative. Therefore Chartres Cathedral is considered the initial building of Classic Gothic. The arcades and aisles were much taller than in the first Gothic cathedrals, and the tribune were omitted. Also the clerestories were higher than in any basilica before it. Except for their lowest parts, the apse and the chapels were polygonal.
Work was nearly completed by 1225, with the architecture, glass and sculpture finished, though the seven steeples were still being rebuilt. It was not formally reconsecrated until 1260. Only a few changes were made since that time, including the addition of a new chapel dedicated to
The new cathedral was 130.2 meters long and 30 meters high in the nave longer and higher than Notre-Dame de Paris.[22] Since the cathedral was constructed with the new flying buttresses, the walls were more stable, enabling the builders to eliminate the tribune level, and have more space for windows.[22]
The lower portions of the west front (1134–1150) are Early Gothic. The north and south transepts fronts are High Gothic, as is the sculpture of the six thirteenth-century portals. The spire on the north tower is later Flamboyant.[20] Chartres still has much of its original medieval stained glass, famous for the deep color called Chartres blue.[20]
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The choir and the apse chapels of Chartres Cathedral, except for the crypts already polygonal
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South side of the nave: No fine tracery, except for the Flamboyant window on the very right
Bourges Cathedral (1195–1230)
While most High Gothic cathedrals generally followed the Chartres plan,
Since Bourges used six-part rib vaults instead of the lighter four-part vaults, the upper walls had to resist greater outward thrust, and the flying buttresses had to be more effective. The Bourges buttresses used a unique design with a particularly acute angle, which gave it the necessary force, but it was also reinforced by thicker and stronger walls than Chartres.[23]
The predominant sensation at Bourges is not only great height, but great length and interior space; the cathedral is 120 m (390 ft) long, without a transept or other interruption.[24] The most unusual feature of Bourges Cathedral is the arrangement of vertical height; each part of the elevation is set back, like steps, with the highest roof and vaults over the central aisle. The outermost aisles have vaults nine meters high; the intermediate aisles have vaults 21.3 m (70 ft) high; and the center aisle has vaults 37.5 m (123 ft) high.[23]
Many later Gothic cathedrals followed the Chartres model, but several were influenced by Bourges, including Le Mans Cathedral, the modified Beauvais Cathedral, and Toledo Cathedral in Spain, which copied the system of vaults of different heights.[23]
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Nave, with 21-meter-high piers of the grand arcades
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The chevet, all windows without tracery.
Angevin Gothic
Most buildings of Plantagenet style, also called Angevin Gothic, by dating and by shape are part of early Gothic. In the reconstruction of Angers Cathedral begun by bishop Normand de Doué, 1148–1152, the first Angevin vault were constructed. Poitiers Cathedral, erected since 1166 is known as the first Gothic hall church. Its eastern parts are Early Gothic with som Romanesque elements, ist western Parts have High Gothic trecery.
Early Classic Gothic
Some crucial examples of Classic Gothic, such as Chartres Cathedral (see above) and Bourges Cathedral fit the criteria of Early Gothic.
Early Gothic in Normandy
Experiments with Gothic features were also underway in Normandy in the late 11th and 12th centuries. In 1098
Early Gothic in England
Canterbury Cathedral
One of the first major buildings in England to use the new style was Canterbury Cathedral. A fire destroyed the mainly Romanesque choir in September 1174, and leading architects from England and France were invited to offer plans for its reconstruction. The winner of this competition was a French master builder, William of Sens, who had been involved in the construction of Sens Cathedral, the first complete Gothic cathedral in France.[27]
Many limitations were put upon William of Sens by the monks who ran the cathedral. He was not allowed to replace entirely the original Norman church, and had to fit his new structure on the old crypt and within the surviving outer Norman walls. Nonetheless, he achieved a strikingly original sculpture, showing elements inspired by
William of Sens fell from a scaffolding in 1178 and was seriously injured, and returned to France, where he died,[29] and his work was continued by an English architect, William the Englishman, who constructed the Trinity Chapel in the apse and the Corona in the east end, which were monuments to Thomas Becket, who had been murdered in the cathedral. The new structure had many French features, such as the doubled columns in the Trinity chapel, and piers replaced by Purbeck-marble wall shafts. But it also retained many specifically English features, such as a great variety in the level and placement of the spaces; the Trinity chapel, for example is sixteen steps above the Choir). It also retaining rather than eliminated the transepts - Canterbury had two. Early English Gothic put an emphasis on great length; Canterbury was doubled in length between 1096 and 1130.[28]
One reason for the differences between French and English Gothic was that French Benedictine abbey-churches usually put different functions into separate buildings, while in England they were usually combined in the same structure. Similar complicated multifunctional designs were found not only in Canterbury, but in the abbey-churches of Bath, Coventry, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Winchester and Worcester.[30]
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Choir of Canterbury Cathedral rebuilt by William of Sens (1174–1184)
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The windows and vaults of Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral
The Cistercian abbeys
Another notable form of early English Gothic architecture was that of the
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Kirkstall Abbey (c. 1152)
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Roche Abbey (c. 1172)
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Fountains Abbey (c. 1132)
Wells Cathedral
Wells Cathedral, (built between 1185–1200 and modified until 1240) is another leading example of the early English style. It borrowed some aspects, such as its elevation, from the French style, but gave precedence to strong horizontals, such as the triforium, rather than the dominant vertical elements, such as wall shafts, of the French style. The piers were composed of as many as twenty-four shafts, adding another unusual decorative effect.[31] The north porch, built in 1210–15, and especially the west front (1220–1240) had a particularly novel decorative effect. The screen facade of the west front is filled with nearly four hundred carved and painted stone figure, and is made more impressive by two flanking towers, attached to but not part of the body of the church. This arrangement was adapted by other English cathedrals, including Salisbury Cathedral and Exeter Cathedral.[31]
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West front of Wells Cathedral (1220–1240)
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Nave of Wells Cathedral, with its strong horizontal emphasis. The unusual double arch was added in 1338 to reinforce the support of the tower.
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Detail of the sculpted capitals of clustered columns in the nave
Salisbury Cathedral
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The sprawling plan of Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1260), with its multiple transepts and projecting porch
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The nave ofPurbeck marblecolumns
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The choir of Salisbury Cathedral
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The Lady Chapel of Salisbury Cathedral
Lincoln Cathedral
Another distinctive English element introduced at Lincoln was the use of s the
A third feature important feature of Lincoln was the thick or double-shell wall. This was an Anglo-Romanesque feature, which earlier had been in used in Romanesque structures of Caen, and in Durham and Winchester Cathedral. Instead of being supported only by flying buttresses, the vaults receive additional support from the thicker walls of the gallery over the aisles. This allowed a considerably wider span across the nave, and also meant that the vaults could have additional purely decorative ribs, as in the "Crazy vault".[33]
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Lincoln Cathedral (rebuilt beginning in 1192)
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The wide nave of Lincoln Cathedral
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The "Crazy Vaults" of the St. Hugh's choir of Lincoln Cathedral
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Blind arcades of St. Hugh's choir in Lincoln Cathedral
Characteristics
Plans
The plans of the early Gothic cathedrals in France were usually in the form of a Greek cross, and were relatively simple.
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Choir and ambulatory of Saint-Denis abbey church, 1140
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Plan of Sens Cathedral begun in 1135
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Noyon Cathedral, 1130–1150, plan without later additions
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Notre Dame de Paris, begun in 1163, plan with additions since 1220.
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Choir and ambulatory ofViolet-le-Duc
The plans of the early English Gothic cathedrals were usually longer and much more complex, with additional transepts, attached chapels, external towers, and usually a rectangular west end. The choirs were often as long as the nave. The form expressed the multiple activities often going on simultaneously in the same building.[35]
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Plan of Wells Cathedral (begun 1175)
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Plan of Lincoln Cathedral (begun 1192)
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Salisbury Cathedral (begun 1220)
Elevations
At the time of the early Gothic, the flying buttress was not yet in common use, and buttresses were placed directly close to or directly against the walls. The walls had to be reinforced by additional width.
The introduction of a simpler four-part rib vault and especially the flying buttress meant that the walls could be thinner and higher, with more room for windows. By the end of the period, the triforium level was usually eliminated, and larger windows filled the space.[36]
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Noyon Cathedral, late 12h century, four levels: arcade, tribune, triforium, clerestory
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Choir ofNotre Dame de Paris, consecration 1182, three levels (arcade, tribune and clerestory); triforia removed by the remodeling of the clerestories after 1220
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Three-part elevation of Wells Cathedral (begun 1176)
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Nave of Lincoln Cathedral. showing three levels; arcades (bottom); tribunes {middle} and clerestory (top).
Vaults
The rib vault was a characteristic feature of Gothic architecture from the beginning. It was the result of a search for a way to build stone roofs on churches that could not catch fire but would not be too heavy. Variations of rib vaults had been used in Islamic and Romanesque architecture, often to support domes.[37] The rib vault had thin stone ribs which carried the vaulted surface of thin panels.[9] Unlike the earlier barrel vault, where the weight of the vault pressed down directly onto the walls, the arched ribs of a rib vault had a pointed arch, a rib which directed the weight outwards and downwards to specific points, usually piers and columns in the nave below, or outward to the walls, where it was countered by buttresses. The panels between the ribs were made of small pieces of stone, and were much lighter than the earlier barrel vaults. A primitive form, a ribbed groin vault, with round arches, was used at Durham Cathedral, and then, in the course of building, was improved with pointed arches in about 1096. Other variations had been used at Lessay Abbey in Normandy at about the same time.[35]
The first Gothic rib vaults were divided by the ribs into six compartments. A six-part vault could cover two sections of the nave. Two pointed arches crossed diagonally and were supported by an intermediate arch, which crossed the nave from side to side. The weight was carried downward by thin columns from the corners of the vault to the alternating heavy piers and thinner columns in the nave below. The weight was distributed unevenly; the piers received the greater weight from diagonal arches, while the columns took the lesser weight from the intermediate arch. This system was used successfully at the Basilica of Saint-Denis, Noyon Cathedral, Laon Cathedral, and Notre-Dame de Paris.
A simpler and stronger vault with just four compartments was developed at the end of the period by eliminating the intermediate arch. As a result, the piers or columns below all received an equal load, and could have the same size and appearance, giving greater harmony to the nave. This system was used increasingly at the end of the Early Gothic period.
More elaborate rib vaults were introduced in England later in the period, at
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Six-part vaults in Sens Cathedral (begun 1135)
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Six-part rib vaults in Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1163)
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Four-part vaults of Wells Cathedral (begun 1176)
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"Crazy vaults" of Lincoln Cathedral in St. Hugh's choir (1192–1208)
Flying buttress
Variations of the flying buttress existed before the Gothic period, but Gothic architects developed them to a high degree of sophistication. By counterbalancing the thrust against the upper walls from the rib vaults, they made possible the great height, thin walls and large upper windows of the Gothic cathedrals. The early Gothic buttresses were placed close to the walls, and were columns of stone with a short arch to the upper level, between the windows. They were often topped by stone pinnacles both for decoration, and to make them even heavier.
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Flying buttress at the Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen, Caen (11th century)
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Early buttresses of Noyon Cathedral
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Buttresses of Laon Cathedral
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Flying buttresses of Salisbury Cathedral
Sculpture
The most important sculptural decoration of early Gothic cathedrals was found over and around the portals, or doorways, on the tympanum and sometimes also on the columns. Following the model of Romanesque churches, these depicted the Holy Family and Saints. Following the tradition of
One of the finest examples of early Gothic sculpture is the tympanum over the royal portal of Chartres Cathedral (1145–1245), which survived a fire that destroyed much of the early Cathedral.
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Central tympanum of the royal portal, Chartres Cathedral (1145–1245)
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Detail of the royal portal of Chartres Cathedral (1145–1245)
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Adam and Eve eating apples, west front of Lincoln Cathedral (12th century)
Stained glass
Stained glass had existed for centuries, and was used in Romanesque churches, but it became was a particularly important feature of early Gothic architecture. The Abbot Suger commissioned stained glass windows for the Basilica of Saint-Denis to fill the ambulatory and chapels with what he considered to be divine light. The stained glass windows of Saint-Denis and other Early Gothic churches had a particular intensity of color, partly because the glass was thicker and used more color, and partly because the early windows were small, and their light had a more striking contrast with the dark interiors of the churches and cathedrals.
The process of making the windows was described by the monk Theophilus Presbyter in the early 12th century. The glass and the windows were made by different craftsmen, usually at different locations. The molten glass was coloured with metal oxides; cobalt for blue, copper for red, iron for green, manganese for purple and antimony for yellow. When molten, it was blown into a bubble, formed into a tubular shape, cut at the ends to make a cylinder, then slit and flattened while it was still hot. It ranged in thickness from 3 to 8 mm (0.12 to 0.31 in). A full-size drawing of the window was made on a large table, and then pieces of colored glass were "grozed", or cracked off the sheet, and assembled on the table. The details of the windows were then painted on in vitreous enamel, then fired. The glass pieces were fit into grooved pieces of lead, which were soldered together, and sealed with putty to make them waterproof, to complete the window.[41][42]
The rose window was a particular feature of early Gothic. They had been used in Romanesque architecture, such as the two small windows on the facade of
The rose windows of the Early Gothic churches were composed of plate tracery, a geometric pattern of openings in stone over the central portal. Early examples included the rose on the west facade of the Basilica of Saint-Denis (though the present window is not original), and the early rose window on the west front of Chartres Cathedral. Other examples are the rose on the west front of Laon Cathedral and Notre Dame de Mantes (1210)[43] York Minster has what is believed to be the oldest existing stained glass window in England, a Tree of Jesse (1170).
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12th century stained glass from Basilica of Saint-Denis
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Detail of a Tree of Jesse from York Minster (c. 1170), the oldest stained-glass window in England.
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Rose window of Notre Dame de Mantes (c. 1210)
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West rose window ofNotre Dame de Paris(c. 1220)
See also
- Gothic architecture
- Gothic cathedrals and churches
- High Gothic
- Rayonnant
- Flamboyant
- French Gothic architecture
- English Gothic architecture
- Architecture of Normandy
References
- ^ "L'Histoire, L'art gothique à la conquête de l'Europe". Archived from the original on 2023-05-06. Retrieved 2023-05-02.
- ^ "Dominiqque Vermand, portal Églises de l'Oise → article Noyon, cathédrale Notre-Dame (→ section Chronologie)". Archived from the original on 2023-05-03. Retrieved 2023-05-04.
- ^ a b Watkin 1986, p. 126–128.
- ^ a b c Gothic art at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Renault & Lazé 2006, p. 36.
- ^ Renault & Lazé 2006, p. 33.
- ^ a b Watkin 1986, p. 127.
- ^ a b c d Watkin 1986, p. 128.
- ^ a b Western architecture at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Mignon 2015, p. 10-11.
- ^ Le Guide du Patrimoine de France (2002) pg. 53
- ^ Renault & Lazé 2006, p. 33–35.
- ^ a b c Mignon 2015, p. 16–17.
- ^ Mignon 2015, p. 14.
- ^ Watkin 1986, p. 129.
- ^ Mignon 2015, p. 67.
- ^ Matthias Theodor Kloft, Dom und Domschatz in Limburg an der Lahn, puublshed by Verlag Langewiesche, Königstein im Taunus 2016 (= Die Blauen Bücher), ISBN 978-3-7845-4826-5.
- ^ Matthias Theodor Kloft, Limburg an der Lahn – Der Dom, published by Verlag Schnell und Steiner, 19th revised edition, 2015, ISBN 978-3-7954-4365-8
- ^ a b c Mignon 2015, p. 18–19.
- ^ a b c Watkin 1986, p. 131.
- ^ Houvet 2019, p. 12.
- ^ a b Mignon 2015, p. 21.
- ^ a b c d Bony 1985, p. 212.
- ^ Mignon 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Encyclopédie Larousse on-line, "Le Premier Art Gothique" (retrieved May 3, 2020
- ^ a b Mignon 2015, p. 30–31.
- ^ Watkin 1986, p. 143.
- ^ a b Watkin 1986, p. 143–144.
- ^ "As work began on the vault of the eastern part of the choir, William was incapacitated by a fall from a scaffold. He probably continued to direct the work from his sickbed, but this was impractical, and so he gave up and returned to France, where he died." William of Sens at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Watkin 1986, p. 144–145.
- ^ a b c d e Watkin 1986, p. 145.
- ^ a b Watkin 1986, p. 147.
- ^ Watkin 1986, p. 146.
- ^ Ducher 2014, pp. 40–43.
- ^ a b Gothic architecture at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ a b c Ducher 2014, p. 42.
- ^ Watkin 1986, p. 126–127.
- ISBN 978-0-19-967499-2.
- ISBN 0-8020-1886-6.
- ^ Ducher 2014, p. 54.
- ^ stained glass at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. "Stained Glass in Medieval Europe Archived 2021-11-22 at the Wayback Machine". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
- ^ a b Trintignac & Coloni 1984, p. 44–45.
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