Early Middle Ages
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The early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the
The period saw a continuation of trends evident since late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, a small rise in average temperatures in the North Atlantic region and increased migration. In the 19th century the early Middle Ages were often labelled the Dark Ages, a characterization based on the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time. The term is rarely used by academics today.[1] The Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, survived, though in the 7th century the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate conquered the southern part of the Roman territory.
Many of the listed trends reversed later in the period. In 800, the title of
History
Collapse of Rome
Starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including
Early in the 3rd century
The arrival of the
The discipline and organization of a Roman legion made it a superb fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a central government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment, and food. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empire's taxable income and thus its ability to maintain a professional army to defend itself from external threats.
In the
The empire lacked the resources, and perhaps the will, to reconstruct the professional mobile army destroyed at Adrianople, so it had to rely on barbarian armies to fight for it. The
Fleeing before the advance of the
Migration Period
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The Goths and Vandals were only the first of many bands of peoples that flooded
During the migrations, or
The
The gradual breakdown and transformation of economic and social linkages and infrastructure resulted in increasingly localized outlooks. This breakdown was often fast and dramatic as it became unsafe to travel or carry goods over any distance; there was a consequent collapse in trade and manufacture for export. Major industries that depended on trade, such as large-scale pottery manufacture, vanished almost overnight in places like Britain.
The Romans had practiced
For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest and largest city in Europe.[18] Around 100 AD, it had a population of about 450,000,[19] and declined to a mere 20,000 during the early Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation.
Eastern Roman Empire
The death of
The Eastern Roman or "Byzantine" Empire aimed to retain control of the trade routes between Europe and the Orient, which made the Empire the richest polity in Medieval Europe. Making use of their sophisticated warfare and superior diplomacy, the Byzantines managed to fend off assaults by the migrating barbarians. Their dreams of subduing the Western potentates briefly materialized during the reign of Justinian I in 527–565. Not only did Justinian restore some western territories to the Roman Empire, including Rome and the Italian peninsula itself, but he also codified Roman law (with his codification remaining in force in many areas of Europe until the 19th century) and commissioned the building of the largest and most architecturally advanced edifice of the early Middle Ages, the Hagia Sophia. However, his reign also saw the outbreak of a bubonic plague pandemic,[20][21] now known retroactively as the Plague of Justinian. The Emperor himself was afflicted, and within the span of less than a year, an estimated 200,000 Constantinopolites—two out of every five city residents—had died of the disease.[22]
Justinian's successors
Although Heraclius's successors managed to salvage
To counter these threats a new system of administration was introduced. The regional civil and military administration were combined in the hands of a general, or strategos. A
By the early 8th century, notwithstanding the shrinking territory of the empire, Constantinople remained the largest and the wealthiest city west of
The ascension of the
Against this economic background the culture and the imperial traditions of the Eastern Roman Empire attracted its northern neighbours—Slavs, Bulgars, and Khazars—to Constantinople, in search of either pillage or enlightenment. The movement of the Germanic tribes to the south triggered the great migration of the Slavs, who occupied the vacated territories. In the 7th century, they moved westward to the Elbe, southward to the Danube and eastward to the Dnieper. By the 9th century, the Slavs had expanded into sparsely inhabited territories to the south and east from these natural frontiers, peacefully assimilating the indigenous Illyrian and Finnic populations.
Rise of Islam
- 632–750
From the 7th century,
The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the
The unsuccessful
A surviving Umayyad prince,
Birth of the Latin West
700–850
Climatic conditions in Western Europe began to improve after 700.
Though much of Roman civilization north of the Po River had been wiped out in the years after the end of the Western Roman Empire, between the 5th and 8th centuries, new political and social infrastructure began to develop. Much of this was initially Germanic and pagan. Arian Christian missionaries had been spreading Arian Christianity throughout northern Europe, though by 700 the religion of northern Europeans was largely a mix of Germanic paganism, Christianized paganism, and Arian Christianity.[31] Chalcedonian Christianity had barely started to spread in northern Europe by this time. Through the practice of simony, local princes typically auctioned off ecclesiastical offices, causing priests and bishops to function as though they were yet another noble under the patronage of the prince.[32] In contrast, a network of monasteries had sprung up as monks sought separation from the world. These monasteries remained independent from local princes, and as such constituted the "church" for most northern Europeans during this time. Being independent from local princes, they increasingly stood out as centres of learning, of scholarship, and as religious centres where individuals could receive spiritual or monetary assistance.[31]
The interaction between the culture of the newcomers, their warband loyalties, the remnants of classical culture, and Christian influences, produced a new model for society, based in part on feudal obligations. The centralized administrative systems of the Romans did not withstand the changes, and the institutional support for chattel slavery largely disappeared. The Anglo-Saxons in England had also started to convert from Anglo-Saxon polytheism after the arrival of Christian missionaries in 597.
Italy
The Lombards, who first entered Italy in 568 under Alboin, carved out a state in the north, with its capital at Pavia. At first, they were unable to conquer the Exarchate of Ravenna, the Ducatus Romanus, and Calabria and Apulia. The next two hundred years were occupied in trying to conquer these territories from the Byzantine Empire.
The Lombard state was relatively Romanized, at least when compared to the Germanic kingdoms in northern Europe. It was highly decentralized at first, with the territorial dukes having practical sovereignty in their duchies, especially in the southern duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. For a decade following the death of Cleph in 575, the Lombards did not even elect a king; this period is called the Rule of the Dukes. The first written legal code was composed in poor Latin in 643: the Edictum Rothari. It was primarily the codification of the oral legal tradition of the people.
The Lombard state was well-organized and stabilized by the end of the long reign of Liutprand (717–744), but its collapse was sudden. Unsupported by the dukes, King Desiderius was defeated and forced to surrender his kingdom to Charlemagne in 774. The Lombard kingdom ended and a period of Frankish rule was initiated. The Frankish king Pepin the Short had, by the Donation of Pepin, given the pope the "Papal States" and the territory north of that swath of papally-governed land was ruled primarily by Lombard and Frankish vassals of the Holy Roman Emperor until the rise of the city-states in the 11th and 12th centuries.
In the south, a period of chaos began. The Duchy of Benevento maintained its sovereignty in the face of the pretensions of both the Western and Eastern Empires. In the 9th century, the Muslims conquered Sicily. The cities on the Tyrrhenian Sea departed from Byzantine allegiance. Various states owing various nominal allegiances fought constantly over territory until events came to a head in the early 11th century with the coming of the Normans, who conquered the whole of the south by the end of the century.
Britain
Roman Britain was in a state of political and economic collapse at the time of the Roman departure c. 400. A series of settlements (traditionally referred to as an invasion) by Germanic peoples began in the early fifth century, and by the sixth century the island would consist of many small kingdoms engaged in ongoing warfare with each other. The Germanic kingdoms are now collectively referred to as Anglo-Saxons. Christianity began to take hold among the Anglo-Saxons in the sixth century, with 597 given as the traditional date for its large-scale adoption.
Western Britain (Wales), eastern and northern Scotland (Pictland) and the Scottish highlands and isles continued their separate evolution. The Irish descended and Irish-influenced people of western Scotland were Christian from the fifth century onward, the Picts adopted Christianity in the sixth century under the influence of Columba, and the Welsh had been Christian since the Roman era.
The
The first
Viking raids and invasion were no less dramatic for the north. Their defeat of the Picts in 839 led to a lasting Norse heritage in northernmost Scotland, and it led to the combination of the Picts and Gaels under the House of Alpin, which became the Kingdom of Alba, the predecessor of the Kingdom of Scotland. The Vikings combined with the Gaels of the Hebrides to become the Gall-Gaidel and establish the Kingdom of the Isles.
Frankish Empire
The Merovingians established themselves in the power vacuum of the former Roman provinces in Gaul, and Clovis I converted to Christianity following his victory over the Alemanni at the Battle of Tolbiac (496), laying the foundation of the Frankish Empire, the dominant state of early medieval Western Christendom. The Frankish kingdom grew through a complex development of conquest, patronage, and alliance building. Due to salic custom, inheritance rights were absolute, and all land was divided equally among the sons of a dead land holder.[33] This meant that, when the king granted a prince land in reward for service, that prince and all of his descendants had an irrevocable right to that land that no future king could undo. Likewise, those princes (and their sons) could sublet their land to their own vassals, who could in turn sublet the land to lower sub-vassals.[33] This all had the effect of weakening the power of the king as his kingdom grew, since the result was that the land became controlled not just by more princes and vassals, but by multiple layers of vassals. This also allowed his nobles to attempt to build their own power base, though given the strict salic tradition of hereditary kingship, few would ever consider overthrowing the king.[33]
This increasingly fragmented arrangement was highlighted by
Pepin's son Charlemagne continued in the footsteps of his father and grandfather. He further expanded and consolidated the Frankish kingdom (now commonly called the Carolingian Empire). His reign also saw a cultural rebirth, commonly called the Carolingian Renaissance. Though the exact reasons are unclear, Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. Upon Charlemagne's death, his empire had united much of modern-day France, western Germany and northern Italy. The years after his death illustrated how Germanic his empire remained.[35] Rather than an orderly succession, his empire was divided in accordance with Frankish inheritance custom, which resulted in instability that plagued his empire until the last king of a united empire, Charles the Fat, died in 887, which resulted in a permanent split of the empire into West Francia and East Francia. West Francia would be ruled by Carolingians until 987 and East Francia until 911, after which time the partition of the empire into France and Germany was complete.[35]
Feudalism
Around 800 there was a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the
Compared to the earlier two-field system, a three-field system allowed for significantly more land to be put under cultivation. Even more important, the system allowed for two harvests a year, reducing the risk that a single crop failure will lead to famine. Three-field agriculture created a surplus of oats that could be used to feed horses. This surplus allowed for the replacement of the ox by the horse after the introduction of the padded horse collar in the 12th century. Because the system required a major rearrangement of real estate and of the social order, it took until the 11th century before it came into general use. The heavy wheeled plough was introduced in the late 10th century. It required greater animal power and promoted the use of teams of oxen. Illuminated manuscripts depict two-wheeled ploughs with both a mouldboard, or curved metal ploughshare, and a coulter, a vertical blade in front of the ploughshare. The Romans had used light, wheel-less ploughs with flat iron shares that often proved unequal to the heavy soils of northern Europe.
The return to systemic agriculture coincided with the introduction of a new social system called feudalism. This system featured a hierarchy of reciprocal obligations. Each man was bound to serve his superior in return for the latter's protection. This made for confusion of territorial sovereignty since allegiances were subject to change over time and were sometimes mutually contradictory. Feudalism allowed the state to provide a degree of public safety despite the continued absence of bureaucracy and written records.
Manors became largely self-sufficient, and the volume of trade along long-distance routes and in market towns declined during this period, though never ceased entirely. Roman roads decayed and long-distance trade depended more heavily on water transport.[37]
Viking Age
The Viking Age spans the period roughly between the late 8th and mid-11th centuries in
With the means to travel (longships and open water), desire for goods led Scandinavian traders to explore and develop extensive trading partnerships in new territories. Some of the most important trading ports during the period include both existing and ancient cities such as
Viking raiding expeditions were separate from, though coexisted with, regular trading expeditions. Apart from exploring Europe via its oceans and rivers, with the aid of their advanced navigational skills, they extended their trading routes across vast parts of the continent. They also engaged in warfare, looting and enslaving numerous Christian communities of Medieval Europe for centuries, contributing to the development of feudal systems in Europe.
Eastern Europe
- 600–1000
The Early Middle Ages marked the beginning of the cultural distinctions between Western and Eastern Europe north of the Mediterranean. Influence from the
Turkic and Iranian invaders from
The
Once they found themselves confronted by
In the beginning of the period, the
Bulgaria
In 632 the Bulgars established the khanate of Old Great Bulgaria under the leadership of Kubrat. The Khazars managed to oust the Bulgars from Southern Ukraine into lands along middle Volga (Volga Bulgaria) and along lower Danube (Danube Bulgaria).
In 681 the Bulgars founded a powerful and ethnically diverse state that played a defining role in the history of early medieval
After the adoption of
Under Simeon I (893–927), the state was the largest and one of the most powerful political entities of Europe, and it consistently threatened the existence of the Byzantine empire. From the middle of the 10th century Bulgaria was in decline as it entered a social and spiritual turmoil. It was in part due to Simeon's devastating wars, but was also exacerbated by a series of successful Byzantine military campaigns. Bulgaria was conquered after a long resistance in 1018.
Kievan Rus'
Led by a
Transmission of learning
With the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and with urban centres in decline, literacy and learning decreased in the West. [39] De-urbanization reduced the scope of education, and by the 6th century teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the study of biblical texts at the centre of education.[40] The education of the laity continued with little interruption in Italy, Spain, and the southern part of Gaul, where Roman influences lasted longer. In the 7th century, however, learning expanded in Ireland and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign language and Latin texts were eagerly studied and taught.[41] The Carolingian Renaissance of classical education appeared in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th century.
In the
Science
In the ancient world, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the
The study of nature was pursued more for practical reasons than as an abstract inquiry: the need to care for the sick led to the study of medicine and of ancient texts on drugs;[44] the need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars;[45] and the need to compute the date of Easter led them to study and teach mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon.[46][47]
Carolingian Renaissance
In the late 8th century, there was renewed interest in
Institutionally, these new schools were either under the responsibility of a
Byzantium's golden age
Byzantium's great intellectual achievement was the
As for higher education, the
Islamic learning
In the course of the 11th century, Islam's scientific knowledge began to reach Western Europe, via Islamic Spain. The works of
Monasteries
Christianity West and East
Frontispiece of Incipit from the Vatican manuscript
From the
During the early Middle Ages, the divide between Eastern and Western Christianity widened, paving the way for the
Christianization of the West
The
The
Europe in 1000
Speculation that the world would end in the year 1000 was confined to a few uneasy French monks.
Western Europe remained less developed compared to the Islamic world, with its vast network of caravan trade, or China, at this time the world's most populous empire under the
With nearly the entire nation freshly ravaged by the Vikings, England was in a desperate state. The long-suffering English later responded with a massacre of Danish settlers in 1002, leading to a round of reprisals and finally to Danish rule (1013), though England regained independence shortly after. But Christianization made rapid progress and proved itself the long-term solution to the problem of barbarian raiding. The territories of Scandinavia were soon to be fully Christianized Kingdoms:
In Europe, a formalized institution of marriage was established. The proscribed degree of consanguinity varied, but the custom made marriages annullable by application to the Pope.[53] North of Italy, where masonry construction was never extinguished, stone construction was replacing timber in important structures. Deforestation of the densely wooded continent was under way. The 10th century marked a return of urban life, with the Italian cities doubling in population. London, abandoned for many centuries, was again England's main economic centre by 1000. By 1000, Bruges and Ghent held regular trade fairs behind castle walls, a tentative return of economic life to western Europe.
In the culture of Europe, several features surfaced soon after 1000 that mark the end of the early Middle Ages: the rise of the medieval communes, the reawakening of city life, and the appearance of the burgher class, the founding of the first universities, the rediscovery of Roman law, and the beginnings of vernacular literature.
In 1000, the papacy was firmly under the control of German Emperor
Middle East
Rise of Islam
Consult particular article for details
The rise of Islam begins around the time
Islamic expansion
The
The site of the Grand Mosque was originally a pagan temple, then a Visigothic Christian church, before the Umayyad Moors at first converted the building into a mosque and then built a new mosque on the site.
The
At the end of the 8th century, the former Western Roman Empire was decentralized and overwhelmingly rural. The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily and Malta was a process which started in the 9th century. Islamic rule over Sicily was effective from 902, and the complete rule of the island lasted from 965 until 1061. The Islamic presence on the Italian Peninsula was ephemeral and limited mostly to semi-permanent soldier camps.
Caliphs and empire
The Abbasid Caliphate, ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, was the third of the Islamic caliphates. Under the Abbasids, the Islamic Golden Age philosophers, scientists, and engineers of the Islamic world contributed enormously to technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding their own inventions and innovations. Scientific and intellectual achievements blossomed in the period.
The Abbasids built their capital in Baghdad after replacing the Umayyad caliphs from all but the Iberian peninsula. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian, and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility.
The Abbasids flourished for two centuries but slowly went into decline with the rise to power of the Turkish army they had created, the
Timeline
Beginning years
- Dates
- 410: Visigoths under Alaric I sack Rome
- 430: Death of Saint Augustine
- 476: Romulus Augustus
- 496: Battle of Tolbiac, Clovis I converts to Chalcedonianism
- 507: Battle of Vouillé
- 527–565: Justinian I
- 535–552: Gothic Wars
- 541–542: Plague of Justinian in Constantinople
- 547: death of Benedict of Nursia
- c. 570: birth of Muhammad
- 590–604 Pope Gregory I
- 597: death of Columba
- 602–629: Last great Roman–Persian War
- 615: death of Columbanus
- 626: Joint Persian-Avar-Slav Siege of Constantinople
- 632: death of Muhammad
- 636: death of Isidore of Seville
- 674–678: First Arab siege of Constantinople
- 681: First Bulgarian Empire established
Ending years
- Dates
- 7th century: Khazarempire established
- 711–718: Umayyad conquest of Hispania
- 717: Second Arab siege of Constantinople
- 721: death of Ardo, last king of the Visigoths
- 718-722: Battle of Covadonga, establishment of the Kingdom of Asturias
- 730: First Iconoclastic Controversy
- 732: Battle of Tours/Poitiers
- 735: death of Bede, British historian
- 746: Blood court at Cannstatt
- 751: Pepin the Short founds the Carolingian dynasty
- 754: death of Saint Boniface
- 768–814: Charlemagne
- 778: Battle of Roncevaux Pass
- 782: Bloody Verdict of Verden
- 793: Viking raid on Lindisfarne; Viking Agebegins
- 796–804: Alcuin initiates the Carolingian Renaissance[dubious ]
- 815: Byzantine Iconoclasm
- 843: Treaty of Verdun
- 862: Rurikid Dynastyestablished
- 871–899: Alfred the Great
- 872–930: Harald I of Norway
- 874-930: Settlement of Iceland
- 882: Kievan Rus' established
- 911: Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte (Normandy)
- 955: Battle of Lechfeld
- 962: Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor
- 969: Kievan Rus' subjugates Khazars
- 987–996: Hugh Capet
- 988: Christianization of Kievan Rus'
- 991: Battle of Maldon
See also
- Early Christian Ireland
- Early medieval European dress
- Early medieval literature
- English medieval clothing
- Human history
- Indo-Sassanid
- Medieval demography
- Medieval History of Africa
- Turkic expansion
- Wales in the Early Middle Ages
Notes
- ^ For more detail on the various starting and ending dates used by historians, see Middle Ages § Terminology and periodisation.
References
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- Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward, A History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776.
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- ^ Thayer, Bill. "LacusCurtius • Excerpta Valesiana – Latter Part". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ McEvedy 1992, op. cit.
- ^ "Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague Archived 2007-10-07 at the Wayback Machine", News Release, National Institutes of Health, 18 July 1996.
- ^ The History of the Bubonic Plague Archived 15 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
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- ^ City populations from Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census Archived 11 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine (1987, Edwin Mellon Press) by Tertius Chandler
- ^ "Byzantine Empire. The successors of Heraclius: Islam and the Bulgars". Enyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007.
- ISBN 978-0765612830.of the Iranian Sassanid Empire.
It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab conquest
- ISBN 052136292X.
- ^ Cini Castagnoli, G.C., Bonino, G., Taricco, C. and Bernasconi, S.M. 2002. "Solar radiation variability in the last 1400 years recorded in the carbon isotope ratio of a Mediterranean sea core", Advances in Space Research 29: 1989–1994.
- ^ a b Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 102
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- ^ a b Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 147
- ^ Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 148
- ^ a b c Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 165
- ^ a b Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 189
- ^ a b c d Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 170
- ^ Lienhard, John H. "No. 1318: Three-Field Rotation". Engines of Our Ingenuity. University of Houston.
- ^ "The Economy of Medieval Europe: Expanding Trade and Cities".
- ^ Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press
- ^ Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p 52
- ^ Pierre Riché, Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Jeremy Marcelino II, (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 100-129.
- ^ Pierre Riché, Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century, (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 307-323.
- ^ "Philip Schaff: ANF03. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org.
- ^ William Stahl, Roman Science, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr.) 1962, see esp. pp. 120-133.
- ^ Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", Isis, 70(1979):250-268; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).
- ^ Stephen C. McCluskey, "Gregory of Tours, Monastic Timekeeping, and Early Christian Attitudes to Astronomy", Isis, 81(1990):9-22; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).
- ^ Stephen C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1998), pp. 149-57.
- ^ Faith Wallis, "'Number Mystique' in Early Medieval Computus Texts", pp. 179-99 in T. Koetsier and L. Bergmans, eds. Mathematics and the Divine: A Historical Study, (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005).
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- ^ a b c d e Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p 153
- ^ Cantor, 1993 Europe in 1050 p 235.
- ^ Pasciuti, Daniel; Chase-Dunn, Christopher (21 May 2002). "Estimating The Population Sizes of Cities". Urbanization and Empire Formation Project. University of California, Riverside. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 17 June 2006.
- ^ "Сумбур. Страны и города. Демография древнего Киева". Archived from the original on 19 September 2006. Retrieved 19 June 2006.
- ^ Dowling, Francis (9 May 1903). "Heredity with Especial Reference to Certain Eye Affections". The Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic. 89: 478.
Further reading
- Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. I 1966. Michael M. Postan, et al., editors.
- Norman F. Cantor, 1963. The Medieval World 300 to 1300, (New York: MacMillen Co.)
- Marcia L. Colish, 1997. Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition: 400–1400. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press)
- Georges Duby, 1974. The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century (New York: Cornell University Press) Howard B. Clark, translator.
- Georges Duby, editor, 1988. A History of Private Life II: Revelations of the Medieval World (Harvard University Press)
- Heinrich Fichtenau, (1957) 1978. The Carolingian Empire (University of Toronto) Peter Munz, translator.
- Charles Freeman, 2003. The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason (London: William Heinemann)
- Richard Hodges, 1982. Dark Age Economics: The Origins of Towns and Trade AD 600–1000 (New York: St Martin's Press)
- David Knowles, (1962) 1988. The Evolution of Medieval Thought (Random House)
- Richard Krautheimer, 1980. Rome: Profile of a City 312–1308 (Princeton University Press)
- Robin Lane Fox, 1986. Pagans and Christians (New York: Knopf)
- David C. Lindberg, 1992. The Beginnings of Western Science: 600 BC–1450 AD (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press)
- John Marenbon (1983) 1988.Early Medieval Philosophy (480–1150): An Introduction (London: Routledge)
- Rosamond McKittrick, 1983 The Frankish Church Under the Carolingians (London: Longmans, Green)
- Karl Frederick Morrison, 1969. Tradition and Authority in the Western Church, 300–1140 (Princeton University Press)
- Pierre Riché, (1978) 1988. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press)
- Laury Sarti, "Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca. 400–700 A.D.)" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013, ISBN 978-9004-25618-7.
- Richard Southern, 1953. The Making of the Middle Ages (Yale University Press)
- Framing the early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800, Oxford University Press.
- Early Medieval History Archived 2 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine page, Clio History Journal, Dickson College, Australian Capital Territory.
- Glimpses of the dark ages: Or, Sketches of the social condition of Europe, from the fifth to the twelfth century. (1846). New-York: Leavitt, Trow & company
External links
- Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century from The Metropolitan Museum of Art