Early Modern Romania
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The Early Modern Times in Romania started after the death of
were fully incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.The
During this period the lands inhabited by Romanians were characterised by the slow disappearance of the
Background
The
In accordance with the Byzantine political traditions, the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia were
The expansion of the
The disintegration of the Kingdom of Hungary started with the
The Romanian historian
A new war – the so-called
Michael the Brave invaded Transylvania and defeated Andrew Báthory in the
End of the Fifteen Years War (1601–1606)
In Transylvania, extensive taxation, unpaid mercenaries' plundering raids, and attempts to spread Catholicism characterized the rule of Rudolph II's representatives.
The changes and wars have turned [Transylvania] into desert. The boroughs and villages have been burned, most of the inhabitants and their cattle killed or driven away. In consequence, taxes, excise, bridge and road tolls yield but little, the mines are deserted, there are no hands to work.
— Giorgio Basta's letter of 1603[69]
An Italian imperial commander,
The Fifteen Years' War ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok, which was signed in November 1606.[73] According to the treaty, Rudolph II acknowledged that the princes of Transylvania were subjected to the Sultans.[73] Bocskay, who had realized that only the autonomous status of Transylvania guaranteed the preservation of the liberties of the noblemen in Royal Hungary, emphasized that "as long as the Hungarian Crown is with a nation mightier than ours, with the Germans, ... it will be necessary and expedient to have a Hungarian prince in Transylvania".[74] Bocskay died childless on 29 December 1606.[75]
Social changes after 1601
During Michael the Brave's brief tenure and the early years of Turkish suzerainty, the distribution of land in Wallachia and Moldavia changed dramatically.[76] Over the years, Wallachian and Moldavian princes made land grants to loyal boyars in exchange for military service so that by the 17th century hardly any land was left to be granted. Boyars in search of wealth began encroaching on peasant land and their military allegiance to the prince weakened. As a result, serfdom spread, successful boyars became more courtiers than warriors, and an intermediary class of impoverished lesser nobles developed. Would-be princes were forced to raise enormous sums to bribe their way to power, and peasant life grew more miserable as taxes and exactions increased.[76] Any prince wishing to improve the peasants' lot risked a financial shortfall that could enable rivals to out-bribe him at the Porte and usurp his position.[76]
According to the treaties (Capitulations) between the Romanian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia), Turkish subjects were not allowed to settle in the Principalities, to own land, to build houses or mosques, or to marry.[77] In spite of this restrictions imposed on the Turks, the princes allowed Greek and Turkish merchants and usurers to exploit the principalities' riches.
The three principalities under Ottoman rule
Principality of Transylvania (1606–1688)
Long winters and rainy summers with frequent floodings featured the "Little Ice Age" in 17th-century Transylvania.[78][79] Because of the short autumns, arable lands on the plateaus were transformed into grazing lands.[78] The Fifteen Years' War had caused a demographic catastrophe.[79] For instance, the population decreased with about 80% in the lowland villages and with about 45% in the mountains in Solnocul de Mijloc and Dăbâca Counties during the wars; the two most important Saxon centers, Sibiu and Brașov, lost more than 75% of their burghers.[79] The Diets often passed decrees that prescribed the return of runaway serfs to their lords or granted a six-year tax holiday for new settlers, but such decrees became rare from the 1620s, suggesting that a demographic regeneration had occurred in the meantime.[80] Nevertheless, epidemics – measles and bubonic plague – which returned in each decade killed many peoples during the century.[78]
Bocskay designated a wealthy baron from Upper Hungary,
Transylvania prospered during Bethlen's reign.
Bethlen died on 15 November 1629.
George I Rákóczi who died on 11 October 1648 was succeeded by his son, George II Rákóczi.[111][110] During his reign, the codification of the laws of the principality was accomplished with the publication of a law book (the so-called Approbatae) in 1653.[112] The Approbatae ordered the landowners to capture all runaway commoners (especially the Ruthenians, Romanians and Wallachians who wandered in the country) and to force them to settle in their estates as serfs, prohibited the Romanians and the peasants to bear arms and obliged all Romanians to pay the tithe.[113] The Approbatae also contained derogatory statements about the Romanians, stating that they were "admitted into the county for the public good".[114] Rákóczi who planned to acquire the Polish throne intervened in the Second Northern War on behalf of Sweden and invaded Poland in early 1657.[111][108] The Poles routed Rákóczi and his Moldavian and Wallachian allies, forcing them to withdraw.[111][115] On their route, a Crimean Tatar army annihilated Rákóczi's troops, capturing many of the leading noblemen.[116][117]
Rákóczi's action infuriated the new
Michael Apafi, who had been elected prince upon the Ottomans' demand on 14 September 1661, closely cooperated with the Diet throughout his reign.
New species of domesticated plants were introduced in Transylvania in the 17th century. Maize, which was first recorded in 1611, became a popular food in this period.[134] Tobacco was cultivated from the second half of the century, but the Diet passed decrees to regulate smoking already in 1670.[135] Hops was introduced in the mountainous parts in the late 17th century.[134] Mining, which had declined in the previous centuries, flourished during Gabriel Bethlen's reign.[136] The Diet of 1618 decreed that both local and foreign miners could freely open new mines and exempted them of taxation.[137] Besides gold, silver and iron, mercury extracted at Abrud and Zlatna became an important source of state revenues.[138] Settlements destroyed during the Fifteen Years' War were restored between 1613 and 1648.[139] Because of the spread of Renaissance architecture, the towns lost their medieval character in this period.[140] For instance, squares decorated with fountains or statues and parks were established in Alba Iulia and Gilău, Cluj.[141] The villages also transformed: traditional huts disappeared and the new houses were divided into several rooms.[142] Excursions in the countryside became popular among townspeople in this century.[142]
Wallachia (1606–1688)
Radu Șerban concluded treaties with Sigismund Rákóczi and Gabriel Bethlen.[143] However, the latter invaded Wallachia, forcing Radu Șerban to flee in December 1610.[143] For Radu Șerban had adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, the Sublime Porte assisted Radu Mihnea in seizing the throne in 1611.[144] Most boyars supported the new prince, which enabled him to repel Radu Șerban's attacks between 1611 and 1616.[145][143] The immigration of Greeks on a grand scale started during Radu Mihnea's reign.[146] Their financial background enabled them to buy landed property and acquire boyar status.[147]
The Sublime Porte transferred Radu Mihnea to Moldavia and appointed
During the reign of Leon Tomșa, who mounted the throne in 1629, a new anti-Greek uprising started.[148] On 19 July 1631 the rebellious boyars, who were supported by George I Rákóczi,[146] forced Leon Tomșa to expel all Greeks who had not married a local woman and did not held landed property in Wallachia.[147][148] The prince also exempted the boyars of taxation and confirmed their property rights.[147] A year later, the Sublime Porte dethroned Leon Tomșa and appointed Alexandru Iliaș's son, Radu Iliaș, prince.[146] In fear of growing Greek influence, the boyars offered the throne to one of their number, Matei Brâncoveanu, in August 1632.[150] Matei Brâncoveanu, who had fled to Transylvania during Leon Tomșa's reign, returned to Wallachia and defeated Radu Iliaș at Plumbuita in October.[103] He convinced the Sublime Porte to confirm his rule; in exchange, he had to increase the amount of the yearly tribute from 45,000 to 135,000 thalers.[103] Stating that he was a grandson of a former prince, Neagoe Basarab, he changed his name and reigned as Matei Basarab from September 1631.[103]
Matei Basarab closely cooperated with the boyars throughout his reign.[151] He regularly convoked their assembly and strengthened the boyars' control of the peasants who worked on their estates.[147] Uppon his initiative, the copper mine at Baia de Aramă and the iron mine at Baia de Fier were reopened, and two paper mills and a glasswork were built.[152] He stopped farming out the revenues from salt mining and custom duties and introduced a new system of taxation.[153] The latter reform increased the tax burden to such an extent that many of the serfs fled from Wallachia.[153] In response, Matei Basarab levied the taxes that the serfs who left the village would have paid upon those who stayed behind.[153] Increasing state revenues enabled him to finance the erection or renovation of 30 churches and monasteries in Wallachia and on Mount Athos.[153] He established the first institution of higher education – a college in Târgoviște – in Wallachia in 1646.[154] He set up an army of mercenaries.[153] Matei Basarab concluded a series of treaties with George I and II Rákóczi between 1635 and 1650, promising to pay a yearly tribute.[153] In exchange, both princes assisted him against Vasile Lupu of Moldavia who made several attempts to expand his authority over Wallachia.[153] Excessive taxation and the prince's failure to satisfy his soldiers' demands for higher salary caused a revolt at the end of his rule.[155] He died on 9 April 1654.[156]
Ten days later, the boyars elected
The boyars, who were sharply opposed to Mihnea III's anti-Ottoman policy, exerted a powerful influence on state administration after his fall.
The new prince who wanted to restore the monarchs' absolut power captured and executed many members of the Băleni family.[169] He set up a school for higher education and invited Orthodox scholars from the Ottoman Empire to teach philosophy, natural sciences and classical literature.[170] He supported the Ottomans during the siege of Vienna in 1683, but also negotiated with the Christian powers.[171] In fear of the Habsburgs' attempts to promote Catholicism, Cantacuzino tried to forge an alliance with Russia.[172] After imperial troops took control of Transylvania in 1688, Cantacuzino was willing to accept Leopold I's suzerainty in exchange for the Banat and the acknowledgement of his descendants' hereditary rule in Wallachia, but his offers were refused.[171][173] The negotiations were still in progress when Cantacuzino died unexpectedly in October.[171][173]
The spread of hans – inns protected by walls – in the 17th century shows the important role of commerce.[174] For instance, according to foreign travelers' accounts, there were seven hans in Bucharest in 1666.[174] Șerban Cantacuzino, who especially promoted commerce, had new roads and bridges built throughout the country.[152] Maize was also introduced in Wallachia upon his initiative.[168] Lofty mansions built for the Cantacuzinos at Măgureni and Filipești in the middle of the century show the boyars' increasing wealth.[174]
Moldavia (1606–1687)
Ieremia Movilă, who gave his daughters to Polish magnates in marriage, held firm to his alliance with Poland, but never turned against the Ottoman Empire.
Moldavia was included in the Peace of Busza, signed in September 1617, between Poland and the Ottoman Empire, which obliged Poland to cede the fortress of Hotin to Moldavia and to give up supporting Radu Mihnea's opponents.[178] In the same year, peasant uprisings started in many places because of the increased taxation.[178] The Sublime Porte granted Moldavia to Gaspar Graziani, a Venetian adventurer, in 1619.[178] He attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance with Poland and the Habsburgs, but a group of boyars murdered him in August 1620.[178][179] In the following one and half decades six princes – Alexandru Iliaș, Stephen Tomșa, Radu Mihnea, Miron Barnovschi-Movilă, Alexandru Coconul, and Moise Movilă – succeeded on the throne.[175] Barnovschi-Movilă ordered that runaway serfs be returned to their lords.[178] An uprising of the peasantry forced Alexandru Iliaș to abdicate in 1633, and the mob massacred many of his Greek courtiers.[148]
A period of stability commenced when Vasile Lupu mounted the throne in 1634.
George Stephen dismissed Vasile Lupu's relatives from the highest offices.[121] He spent enormous sums to pay his mercenaries, but could not hinder the latter from pillaging the countryside or fighting against each other.[121] Although the Sublime Porte forbade him to support George II Rákóczi, he sent a troop of 2,000 to accompany Rákóczi to Poland.[187] In retaliation, the Porte dethroned George Stephen and placed George Ghica on the throne in 1659.[121]
17th–18th centuries
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Although centuries of continued attacks and raids from Turks, Tatars, Poles, Hungarians, and Cossacks, had crippled Moldavia and Wallachia and caused economical and human losses, the two countries were relatively adapted to this type of warfare. During the second half of the 17th century, Poland suffered a similar series of attacks: Swedish, Cossack and Tartar attacks ultimately left Poland in ruin, and it lost its place as a Central European power (see The Deluge).
During the early 17th century, Moldavia had unfortunate experiences in their efforts for Russian assistance from
In response, a great Ottoman army approached along the Prut and, at the Battle of Stanilesti in June 1711, the Russian and Moldavian armies were crushed. The war was ended by the Treaty of the Pruth on July 21, 1711. The Grand Vizier imposed drastic terms. The treaty stipulated that Russian armies would abandon Moldavia immediately, renounce its sovereignty over the Cossacks, destroy the fortresses erected along the frontier, and restore Otchakov to the Porte. Moldavia was obliged to assist at and to support all expenses for the reinforcements and supplies that traversed Moldavian territory. Prince Cantemir, many of his boyars[188] and much of the Moldavian army had to take refuge in Russia.
As a result of their victory of the 1711 war, the Turks placed a garrison in
The existing Moldavians in the Russian armies were joined by newly joined Moldavian and Wallachian Hussars (Hansari in the
Phanariots
An important demand of the Treaty of Prut was that Moldavia and Wallachia would have only appointed rulers. The Phanariots would be appointed as
Under the Phanariots, Moldavia was the first state in Eastern Europe to abolish serfdom, when Constantine Mavrocordatos, summoned the boyars in 1749 to a great council in the church of the Three Hierarchs in Iași. In Transylvania, this reform did not take place until 1784, as a consequence of the bloody revolt of the Romanian peasantry under Horea, Cloşca and Crişan. Bessarabia was now still more attractive to the Polish and Russian serfs. The former had to serve their masters free for 150 days every year, and the latter were virtually slaves. Clandestine immigration from Poland and the Ukraine flowed particularly to the boundaries of Bessarabia, around Hotin and Cernăuţi.
Russian expansion
By the late 18th century and early 19th century, Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania found themselves as a clashing area for three neighboring empires: the Habsburg Empire, the newly appeared Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1768, a six-year war broke out between Russia and Turkey (see
In 1775, Empress Maria Theresa of the
In 1787, Russia and Austria declared war on Turkey (see
In 1806,
Bessarabia and Bukovina
Bessarabia, which according to the official Russian census of 1816, 92.5% of the population was Romanian (419,240 Romanians, 30,000 Ukrainians, 19,120 Jews, 6,000 Lipovans), would be held by Russia until 1918. During this time, the percentage of the Romanian population of the area decreased because of the politics of colonization pursued by the Russian government. In the first years following the annexation, several thousand peasant families fled beyond the Pruth out of fear that the Russian authorities would introduce serfdom.[189] This was one of the reasons behind the decision of the Russian government not to extend the regime of serfdom into Bessarbia.
During the first fifteen years after the annexation, Bessarabia enjoyed some measure of autonomy on the basis of "Temporary Rules for the Government of Bessarabia" of 1813 and more fundamentally, "the Statute for the Formation of Bessarbian Province" that was introduced by Alexander I during his personal visit to Chisinau in the spring of 1818. Both documents stipulated that the dispensation of justice is made on the basis of local laws and customs as well as the Russian laws. Romanian was used alongside Russian as the language of administration. The province was placed under the authority of a viceroy who governed together with the Supreme Council formed in part through election from the ranks of the local nobility. A considerable number of positions in the district administration were likewise filled through election. Bessarbia's autonomy was considerably reduced in 1828 when, on the representation of the governor general of New Russia and the viceroy of Bessarabia Prince Mikhail Vorontsov, Nicholas I adopted a new statute which abolished the Supreme Council and reduced the number of elected positions in the local administration.
In parallel, the Russian government pursued the policy of colonization. On 26 June 1812, Tsar Alexander I promulgated the Special Colonization Status of Bessarabia. Bulgarians, Gagauz, Germans, Jews, Swiss and French colonists were brought in. In 1836, the Russian language was imposed as official administration, school and church. Initially an aspect of administrative unification of Bessarabia with the rest of the empire, the promotion of the Russian language in the public sphere became a full-fledged policy of Russification by the end of the 19th century, when the Russian government adopted repressive policies towards local Romanian intellectuals.
Bukovina (including North Bukovina) at that time (1775) had a population of 75,000 Romanians and 12,000 Ukrainians, Jews and Poles. It was annexed to the Habsburg-held province of Galicia, and colonized by Ukrainians, Germans, Hungarians, Jews and Armenians. They were granted free lands and exclusion from paying any taxes. Between 1905 and 1907, 60,000 Romanians were promised more land, and were sent to Siberia and the Central Asian provinces. Instead, further Belarusians and Ukrainians were brought in. The official languages in school and administration were German and Polish.
Transylvania
The Habsburgs
In 1683
The Romanian majority remained segregated from Transylvania's political life and almost totally enserfed; Romanians were forbidden to marry, relocate, or practice a trade without the permission of their landlords. Besides oppressive feudal exactions, the Orthodox Romanians had to pay tithes to the Roman Catholic or Protestant church, depending on their landlords' faith. Barred from collecting tithes, Orthodox priests lived in penury, and many labored as peasants to survive.[190]
Under Habsburg rule, Roman Catholics dominated Transylvania's more numerous Protestants, and Vienna mounted a campaign to convert the region to Catholicism. The imperial army delivered many Protestant churches to Catholic hands, and anyone who broke from the Catholic Church was liable to receive a public flogging. The Habsburgs also attempted to persuade Orthodox clergymen to join the
In 1711, having suppressed an eight-year rebellion of Hungarian nobles and serfs, the Austrian empire consolidated its hold on Transylvania, and within several decades the Greek-Catholic Church proved a seminal force in the rise of Romanian nationalism. Greek-Catholic clergymen had influence in Vienna; and Greek-Catholic priests schooled in Rome and Vienna acquainted the Romanians with Western ideas, wrote histories
The Romanians' struggle for equality in Transylvania found its first formidable advocate in a Greek-Catholic bishop,
The bishop's words fell on deaf ears in Vienna; and Hungarian, German, and Szekler deputies, jealously clinging to their noble privileges, openly mocked the bishop and snarled that the Romanians were to the Transylvanian body politic what "moths are to clothing". Klein eventually fled to Rome where his appeals to the Pope proved fruitless. He died in a Roman monastery in 1768. Klein's struggle, however, stirred both Greek-Catholic and Orthodox Romanians to demand equal standing. In 1762 an imperial decree established an organization for Transylvania's Orthodox community, but the empire still denied Orthodoxy equality even with the Greek-Catholic Church.[190]
The Revolt of Horea, Cloşca and Crişan
Emperor
Joseph II's
Leopold's successor, Francis I (1792–1835), whose almost abnormal aversion to change and fear of revolution brought his empire four decades of political stagnation, virtually ignored Transylvania's constitution and refused to convoke the Transylvanian Diet for twenty-three years. When the Diet finally reconvened in 1834, the language issue reemerged, as Hungarian deputies proposed making Magyar (Hungarian) the official language of Transylvania. In 1843 the Hungarian Diet passed a law making Magyar Hungary's official language, and in 1847 the Transylvanian Diet enacted a law requiring the government to use Magyar. Transylvania's Romanians protested futilely.[191]
At the end of the 17th century, following the defeat of the Turks, Hungary and Transylvania become part of the Habsburg monarchy. The Austrians, in turn, rapidly expanded their empire: in 1718 an important part of Wallachia, called Oltenia, was incorporated into the Austrian Empire as the Banat of Craiova and was only returned in 1739.
Towards independence
See also
- List of Wallachian rulers(up to 1859)
- List of Moldavian rulers(up to 1859)
- List of Transylvanian rulers(up to 1918)
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- ^ a b Treptow & Popa 1996, p. 213.
- ^ Andea 2005, pp. 337, 339.
- ^ George Lupascu Hajdeu: "I, grandson and blood-heir of Prince Stephen Petriceicu, lord of the land of Moldavia, I, unfortunate fugitive from the land of my fathers, I, who was once a wealthy boyar, but who now am a wanderer in a strange land, so poor and poverty-stricken that in my old age I cannot even leave my God alms and a sacrifice, I promise that if God grants that Moldavia, or the district of Hotin, escapes from its enemies, the Turks, and my sons, or my grandsons, or my family regain possession of their estates and their holdings, a church shall be built to St. George in Dolineni (Hotin).... Let us not lose hope that God will pardon us, and that our dear Moldavia shall not always remain under the heel of the Muslims.... May pagan feet not tread on my ancestors' graves, and if my ashes may not rest in my ancestral soil, may my descendants' have that good fortune!"
- Pavel KiseleffRussia on the Danube, p. 211: "The inhabitants fled out of Bessarabia, preferring the Turkish regime, hard though it was, to ours."
- ^ a b c d e f Transylvania under the Habsburgs in U.S. Library of Congress country study on Romania (1989, Edited by Ronald D. Bachman).
- ^ a b c The Reign of Joseph II in U.S. Library of Congress country study on Romania (1989, Edited by Ronald D. Bachman).
- ^ With reference to the 1784 revolt, the U.S. Library of Congress country study says "under Ion Ursu". That is presumably "Vasile Ursu", generally known by his nom-de-guerre, Horea. The revolt is generally known to Romanians as the Revolt of Horea, Cloşca and Crişan.
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