Tamil literature
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Life in Tamil Nadu |
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Tamil literature includes a collection of literary works that have come from a tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from
The history of Tamil literature follows the
A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. The modern Tamil literary movement started with
Indian literature |
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Ancient |
Early Medieval |
Medieval to early Modern |
Sangam age
Topics in Sangam literature | ||
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Sangam literature | ||
Agattiyam | Tolkāppiyam | |
Eighteen Greater Texts | ||
Eight Anthologies | ||
Aiṅkurunūṟu |
Akanāṉūṟu
| |
Puṟanāṉūṟu |
Kalittokai | |
Kuṟuntokai | Natṟiṇai | |
Paripāṭal | Patiṟṟuppattu | |
Ten Idylls | ||
Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai | Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu | |
Malaipaṭukaṭām | Maturaikkāñci | |
Mullaippāṭṭu | Neṭunalvāṭai | |
Paṭṭiṉappālai | Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai | |
Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai | Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai | |
Related topics | ||
Sangam | Sangam landscape | |
Tamil history from Sangam literature |
Ancient Tamil music | |
Eighteen Lesser Texts | ||
Nālaṭiyār | Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai | |
Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu | Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu | |
Kār Nāṟpatu | Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu | |
Aintiṇai Aimpatu | Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu | |
Aintinai Eḻupatu | Tiṇaimālai Nūṟṟaimpatu | |
Tirukkuṟaḷ |
Tirikaṭukam | |
Ācārakkōvai | Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu | |
Ciṟupañcamūlam | Mutumoḻikkānci | |
Elāti | Kainnilai | |
Bhakti Literature | ||
Naalayira Divya Prabandham | Ramavataram | |
Tevaram | Tirumuṟai | |
edit |
Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, traditions, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Unfortunately much of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period has been lost.
குறிஞ்சி – தலைவன் கூற்று |
Red earth and pouring rain[3] |
—( Eight Anthologies
|
—Translated by A. K. Ramanujan |
Tamil legends hold that these were composed in three successive poetic assemblies (Sangam) that were held in ancient times on a now vanished continent far to the south of India.[4] A significant amount of literature could have preceded Tolkappiyam as grammar books are usually written after the existence of literature over long periods. Tamil tradition holds the earliest Sangam poetry to be over twelve millennia old. Modern linguistic scholarship places the poems between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.[5]
Sangam age is considered by the
The literature was classified into the broad categories of 'subjective' (akam) and 'objective' (puram) topics to enable the poetic minds to discuss any topic under the sun, from grammar to love, within the framework of well prescribed, socially accepted conventions. Subjective topics refer to the personal or human aspect of emotions that cannot be verbalized adequately or explained fully. It can only be experienced by the individuals and includes love and
Recognizing that human activities cannot take place in vacuum and are constantly influenced by environmental factors, human experiences, in general, and subjective topics in particular, are assigned to
Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil Literature. Ancient Tamils Primarily followed Vaishnavism (Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) and Kaumaram (who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According to Kamil Zvelebil, Vishnu was considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and the Supreme god of Tamils where as Skanda was considered young and a personal god of Tamils.[6]
There are two poems depicted as example of
To Tirumal (Maha Vishnu):
தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; |
In fire, you are the heat; |
—Paripadal, iii: 63-68 | —F Gros, K Zvelebil[16] |
To Seyyon (
We pray you not for wealth,
not for gold, not for pleasure;
But for your grace, for love, for virtue,
these three,
O god with the rich garland of kaṭampu flowers
with rolling clusters!– Pari. v.: 78–81[16]
The other gods also referred to in the Tolkappiyam are Vēntaṉ "the sovereign" (identified with Indra) and Korravai "the victorious" (identified with Durga) and Varunan "the sea god".[14]
Post-Sangam period
Didactic age
The three centuries after the Sangam age marks the
எப்பொருள் யார்யார்வாய்க் கேட்பினும் அப்பொருள் |
The best known of these works on ethics is the
Other famous works of this period are
Devotional period
The fall of the Kalabhras around 500 CE saw a reaction from the thus far suppressed Hindus. The Kalabhras were replaced by the
Along with the Vaishnava Alvars, Many
Narrative epics
Cilappatikaram is one of the outstanding works of general literature of this period. The authorship and exact date of the classic Cilappatikaram are not definitely known. Ilango Adigal, who is credited with this work was reputed to be the brother of the Sangam age Chera king Senguttuvan. However we have no information of such a brother in the numerous poems sung on the Chera king. The Cilappatikaram is unique in its vivid portrayal of the ancient Tamil land. This is unknown in other works of this period. Cilappatikaram and its companion epic Manimekalai are Jain in philosophy. Manimekalai was written by Sattanar who was a contemporary of Ilango Adigal. Manimekalai contains a long exposition of fallacies of logic. Kongu Velir, a Jain author wrote Perunkathai. Valayapathi and Kundalakesi are the names of two other narrative poems of this period written by a Jain and a Buddhist author respectively. These works have been lost and only a few poems of Valayapathi have been found so far.[citation needed]
Medieval literature
The medieval period was the period of the Imperial
Of the books on the
There were biographical and political works such as Jayamkondar's
Vijayanagar and Nayak period
The period from 1300 CE to 1650 was a period of constant change in the political situation of Tamil Nadu. The Tamil country was invaded by the armies of the
There was a large output of works of philosophical and religious in nature, such as the Sivananabodam by Meykandar. At the end of the 14th century Svarupananda Desikar wrote two anthologies on the philosophy of
This period also an age of many
The 17th-century altruist Syed Khader, known colloquially as
Modern era
During the 18th and the 19th century Tamil Nadu witnessed some of the most profound changes in the political scene. The traditional Tamil ruling clans were superseded by European colonists and their sympathisers. The Tamil society underwent a deep cultural shock with the imposition of western cultural influences. The Hindu religious establishments attempted to stem the tide of change and to safeguard the Tamil cultural values. Notable among these were the Saiva monasteries at Tiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram, Thiruppananthal and Kundrakudi.
Tamil novel
The novel as a genre of literature arrived in Tamil in the third quarter of the 19th century, more than a century after it became popular with
, who mixes classical Tamil inflections with experimental sound poets.There are other less appreciated works involving those translated from other languages, which are often unrecognized by Tamil pundits. The works include "Urumaatram" (translation of Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis), Siluvayil Thongum Saathaan (translation of "Devil on the Cross" by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o), Thoongum azhagigalin Illam (translation of "The House of the Sleeping Beauties" by Yasunari Kawabata). Writers like Amarantha, Latha Ramakrishnan are responsible for these works.[citation needed]
Popular fiction
Crime and detective fiction has enjoyed wide popularity in Tamil Nadu since the 1930s. Popular authors in the years before independence included Kurumbur Kuppusami and Vaduvur Duraisami Iyengar. In the 1950s and 1960s, Tamilvanan's detective hero Shankarlal carried readers to a variety of foreign locales, while using a pure Tamil with very few Hindi or English loan words. These writers are often extremely prolific, with hundreds or even thousands of short novels to their credit, and one or more short novel published in a monthly periodical. Indra Soundar Rajan, another popular modern author, writes supernatural crime thrillers usually based around Hindu mythology.[21]
Tamil Novel Writers
In the 1940s and 1950s Kalki Krishnamurthy was notable for his historical and social fiction.
In the 1950s and 60s,
From the 1950s, spanning six decades, Jayakanthan authored around 40 novels, 200 short stories, apart from two autobiographies. Outside literature, he made two films. In addition, four of his other novels were adapted into films by others. His works revolve around the lives of underclass people like rickshaw-pullers, prostitutes and rag-pickers.
Arunaa Nandhini is one of recent Tamil novelists who has entered the hearts of many Tamil readers, and her story covers family subject, romance, reality, with some humor added for the readers to enjoy their leisure.
Modern romance novels are represented by the current bestselling author in the Tamil language, Ramanichandran.
Though sales of Tamil pulp fiction have declined since the hey-day of the mid-1990s, and many writers have turned to the more lucrative television serial market, there remains a thriving scene.
Periodicals
The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. Rajavritti Bodhini and Dina Varthamani in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem Desabhimini in 1878 and Coimbatore Kalanidhi in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals. In 1882, G. Subramaniya Iyer started the newspaper Swadesamitran. It became the first Tamil daily in 1889. This was the start of many journals to follow and many novelists began to serialise their stories in these journal. The humour magazine
Tamil journalism
The first Tamil periodical was published by the Christian Religious Tract Society in 1831 – The Tamil Magazine.
The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. Rajavritti Bodhini and Dina Varthamani in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem Desabhimini in 1878 and Coimbatore Kalanidhi in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals.
The first regular newspaper in Tamil was Swadesamitran in 1882, started by G.Subramaniya Iyer, editor and sponsor of The Hindu and founding member of the Indian National Congress. He created a whole new Tamil political vocabulary. He was conscious that those with a knowledge of English are fewer in number and those with a knowledge of Indian languages make the vast majority. He felt that unless the people were told about the objectives of British rule and its merits and defects in the Indian languages, their political knowledge would never develop. When Subramania Aiyer quit The Hindu 1898, he made the Swadesamitran his full-time business. In 1899, the first Tamil daily. It was to enjoy this status for 17 years.
Subramania Aiyer's "pugnacious style, never qualifying words to soften the sharp tenor of a sentence," his use of words "dipped in a paste of extra pungent green chillies," made the Swadesamitran sought by Tamils wherever they lived in the world. And the daily became even more popular when Subramania Bharati joined it in 1904. The next year, when Lala Lajpat Rai was arrested and agitation followed in the Punjab, Subramania Aiyer's attitude to the British changed and he became a trenchant political critic of the Raj. His whole political mantra can be summed up in these words: `Peaceful but tireless and unceasing effort.' Let us sweat ourselves into Swaraj, he would seem to say." Swadesamitran is credited for coining new Tamil words to deal with science, politics and administration. It had the most comprehensive budget of news among all the regional language papers of that time.
In 1917, Desabhaktan, another Tamil daily began with T.V. Kalyansundara Menon as editor. He was succeeded by V.V.S. Iyer, a colleague of the Savarkar brothers. These two editors were scholars with a natural, highly readable but polished style of writing.
The freedom movement and the advent of Gandhi also impacted Tamil journalism. Navasakthi, a Tamil periodical edited by Tamil scholar and freedom fighter V. Kalyanasundaram. C.Rajagopalachari began Vimochanam, a Tamil journal devoted to propagating prohibition at the Gandhi Ashram in Tiruchengode in Salem district.
In 1926, P. Varadarajulu Naidu, who was conducting a Tamil news-cum-views weekly 'Tamil Nadu' started a daily with the same name. Its forceful and colloquial style gained it a wide readership but after the paper failed to take sides with the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, the Congress Party decided to bring out a new Tamil daily – India, edited by renowned poet Subramania Bharati. India showed great promise but could not establish itself financially, and folded up soon after Bharati was exiled to Pondicherry. All these papers were published from Madras.
In 1933, the first Tamil tabloid – the 8 page Jayabharati began at a price of 1⁄4 anna. It closed in 1940 as the price could not sustain even its postage.
In September 1934, S. Sadanand (who was running The Free Press Journal) started the Tamil daily Dinamani with T.S. Chockalingam as editor. It was priced at 6 pies, contained bright features and was fearlessly critical. It was highly successful and its circulation eclipsed the total circulation of all other Tamil dailies. Soon 'India' was incorporated into Dinamani. Dinamani made a studied and conscious effort to make the contents of a newspaper intelligible even to the newly literate. In 1935,
Many magazines began in Tamil Nadu during the 1920s and '30s. The humour magazine Ananda Vikatan started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. It is still running successfully after 80 years and the Vikatan group today also publishes Chutti Vikatan, Junior Vikatan, Motor Vikatan and other special interest magazines. R. Krishnamurthy serialised his short stories and novels in Ananda Vikatan and eventually started his own weekly Kalki. The name Kalki denotes the impending tenth Avatar of Lord Vishnu in the Hindu religion, who it is said, will bring to an end the Kali Yuga and reinstate Dharma or righteousness among the worldly beings. He used the name because he wanted to bring about liberation of India.
In 1942, Dina Thanthi (Daily Telegraph) was started in Madurai with simultaneous editions in Madras, Salem and Tiruchirappalli. It was founded by S.P. Adithanar, a lawyer trained in Britain. He modeled Thanthi on the style of an English tabloid- The Daily Mirror. He aimed to bring out a newspaper that ordinary people would read, and which would encourage a reading habit even among the newly literate. In the past, the daily newspaper which was printed in Madras reached the southern Tamil region after at least one day. Thanthi used the public bus system to distribute the paper throughout the south Tamil region and capitalized on the hunger for war news that arose after Singapore fell to the Japanese. Due to financial constraints, its Salem and Tiruchirappalli editions had to be closed down for a while. Thanthi emphasized local news, especially crime and the courts. It used photographs extensively and brought banner headlines to Tamil journalism. It could fit one story on an entire broadsheet page, mainly filled with large easy-to-read headlines. One of its biggest scoops was the murder of the editor of a scandalous film magazine by two actors. Thanthi covered the trial in Madras in detail, and its reporters phoned the daily account to the printing centre in Madurai. Thanthi was the first Tamil paper to understand the people’s fascination with crime and film stars. The paper was popular and it was said that Tamils learned to read in order to read the newspaper.
Dina Thanthi became one of the largest Tamil language dailies by circulation within a few years; it has been a leading Tamil daily since the 1960s. It has today 14 editions. It is the highest circulated Tamil daily in Bangalore and Pondicherry. It issues a book called 10th, +2 Vina Vidai Book, on every Wednesday during the second part of the year. The model question papers of all the subjects of Standard 10 and 12 are provided with answers along with the question papers of board exams that are conducted previous year.
Tamil Novels Writers Name
The rise of the Internet has triggered a dramatic growth in the number of Tamil blogs and specialist portals catering to political and social issues.[22] Tamil literature is even available in the form of e-books. Tamil literature boasts a rich tradition of novel writing, with many talented authors contributing to the literary landscape. Here are ten prominent Tamil novel writers:
1. **Kalki Krishnamurthy (1899–1954):** Renowned for historical novels like "Ponniyin Selvan," Kalki is considered a pioneer in Tamil literature.
2. **S. Ramakrishnan (1937–):** Known for his realistic portrayal of social issues, Ramakrishnan has penned impactful novels such as "Oru Manithanin Kathai."
3. **Jayakanthan (1934–2015):** A prolific writer and Sahitya Akademi Award winner, Jayakanthan explored various themes in his novels, including social and existential issues.
4. **Akilan (1922–1988):** Famous for historical novels like "Chitralekha" and "Vengayin Maindhan," Akilan made significant contributions to Tamil literature.
5. **R. K. Narayan (1906–2001):** Though born in Madras (now Chennai), R. K. Narayan wrote in English. His works, such as "Malgudi Days," have left an indelible mark on Indian literature.
6. **Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1908–1994):** Another author who wrote in Malayalam but had a significant impact on Tamil literature, Basheer's works often explored social issues and human relationships.
7. **C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972):** A multifaceted personality, Rajagopalachari, also known as Rajaji, was a statesman, politician, and writer. His novel "Chandralekha" gained popularity.
8. **Pudhumaipithan (1906–1948):** An influential short story writer, Pudhumaipithan also made notable contributions to Tamil novels, exploring social and psychological themes.
9. **Sivasankari (1942–):** With a focus on women's issues, Sivasankari has authored numerous novels like "Paalangal" and "Piriyatha Varam Vendum."
10. **R. Chudamani (1941–):** Known for her novels exploring the lives of women in rural Tamil Nadu, Chudamani has made a significant impact on contemporary Tamil literature.
These writers have played a crucial role in shaping Tamil literature through their diverse themes and narrative styles.
read More: Tamil Novel Writers
See also
- Project Madurai: open access Tamil literature repository
- List of Tamil poets
- Sri Lankan Tamil Literature
- Tamil Heritage Foundation, digitalization of ancient Tamil literature
- Tamil historical novels
- Tamil mythology
- § Dalit literature in Tamil
Further reading
- Neild, S. (1968). A Select Bibliography of Books and Articles on Tamil Literature in English. Mahfil, 4(3/4), pp. 107–112
Notes
- ^ Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kurunthogai (11), and Natrinai (14, 75) are dated before 300 BCE.
- ^ a b See Majumdar, p 193
- Kuruntokaifor a commentary on this poem.
- ^ See Zvelebil, pp. 45–47
- ^ The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, p. 106
- ^ Zvelebil 1974, pp. 48–49.
- ISBN 978-81-208-3816-1.
- ISBN 978-3-11-080410-2.
- ^ Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti. "2. The Sangam Period". tripod.com.
- ^ Zvelebil 1973, pp. 123–124.
- ^ https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/in-praise-of-vishnu/article6245959.ece
- ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4.
- ^ Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).
- ^ a b Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 1969. p. 131. Archived from the original on 13 November 2017.
- ^ Paripāṭal Poem 1 Line 50 to 56 ஐந்தலை உயிரிய அணங்குடை அருந்திறல் மைந்துடை ஒருவனும்– you are the one with five heads who causes great fear and is one of great ability and strength – Sivan, மடங்கலும்நீ – one where all lives end, நலம் முழுது அளைஇய – with all benefits, புகர்அறு காட்சிப் புலமும்– faultless learning – Vēdās, பூவனும் – you are Brahman who appeared on a flower, நாற்றமும்நீ – you are creation created by Brahman, வலன் உயர் எழிலியும் – clouds that rise up with strength, மாக விசும்பும் – wide sky, நிலனும்– land, நீடிய இமயமும்– and the tall Himalayas, நீ– you, அதனால் – so, இன்னோர் அனையை– like so and so, இனையையால்– like somebody, என– thus, அன்னோர் – those, யாம் இவண் காணாமையின் – I have not seen here, பொன் அணி நேமி – wheels decorated with gold, வலம் கொண்டு ஏந்திய – lifting on your right side or lifting with strength, மன்னுயிர் முதல்வனை – you are supreme to all the living beings on the Earth.
- ^ a b Zvelebil 1974, p. 49
- ^ Thiruvalluvar. "Text of Tirukkural: Adhikaram 43". IITM Software and Multilingual Application Development. Rev. G.U. Pope (translation). IIT Madras. Archived from the original on 30 December 2007. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
- ^ See Majumdar, p 194
- ^ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (10 August 2002). "The Diversity in Indian Islam". The Times of India. Retrieved 21 August 2020 – via UCLA Center for India and South Asia.
- ^ Kala Krishnan Ramesh (20 December 2008). "Style as Substance". Retrieved 14 December 2008.
- ISBN 978-81-906056-0-1.
- ^ Tamil blogosphere
References
- Hart, George L. (1975). The poems of ancient Tamil: their milieu and their Sanskrit counterparts. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02672-1.
- Majumdar, R. C. (1987). Ancient India. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 81-208-0436-8.
- Muthiah, S. (23 July 2003). "The beginning of Tamil journalism". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 19 August 2003. Retrieved 23 May 2006.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
- Nilakanta Sastri, K. A.; Srinivasachari, G. (2000). Advanced History of India. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd.
- Viswanathan, S. (13–26 August 2005). "Portrait of a novelist as a social reformer". Frontline. 22 (17). Archived from the original on 30 November 2006. Retrieved 23 May 2006.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1973). The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
- Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1974). Jan Gonda (ed.). Tamil Literature. A History of Indian Literature. Vol. X. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 3447015829.