Early Assyrian period
Early Assyrian period | |||||||||
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c. 2600 BC–c. 2025 BC | |||||||||
Common languages | Akkadian, Sumerian and Hurrian | ||||||||
Religion | Ancient Mesopotamian religion | ||||||||
Historical era | Bronze Age | ||||||||
• Earliest archaeological evidence from Assur | c. 2600 BC | ||||||||
• Conquest by the Akkadian Empire | c. 2300 BC | ||||||||
• Conquest by the Third Dynasty of Ur | c. 2100 BC | ||||||||
• Independence under Puzur-Ashur I | c. 2025 BC | ||||||||
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Today part of | Iraq |
Periodization of ancient Assyria | ||||||||||
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See also: History of the Assyrians |
The Early Assyrian period[1][2] was the earliest stage of Assyrian history, preceding the Old Assyrian period and covering the history of the city of Assur, and its people and culture, prior to the foundation of Assyria as an independent city-state under Puzur-Ashur I c. 2025 BC. Very little material and textual evidence survives from this period. The earliest archaeological evidence at Assur dates to the Early Dynastic Period, c. 2600 BC, but the city may have been founded even earlier since the area had been inhabited for thousands of years prior and other nearby cities, such as Nineveh, are significantly older.
The archaeological evidence suggests that Assur was originally inhabited by
There is no evidence that Assur was independent at any point in the Early Assyrian period. Throughout the centuries prior to Puzur-Ashur I, it is instead evident that the city was dominated by a sequence of powerful states and empires from southern Mesopotamia. In the Early Dynastic Period, Assur experienced considerable Sumerian influence, and for a time fell under the hegemony of the Sumerian city of Kish. In the 24th to 22nd centuries BC, the city was part of the Akkadian Empire as an administrative outpost in northern Mesopotamia, a time later Assyrian kings saw as a golden age. In the final geopolitical stage preceding Assur's independence, the city became a peripheral city within the Sumerian empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC).
History
Origins of Assur
Agricultural villages in the region that would later become Assyria are known to have existed by the time of the Hassuna culture,[3] c. 6300–5800 BC.[7] The city of Assur was probably founded at some point in the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2350 BC),[8][9] or perhaps earlier,[8][10][a] though there is no evidence of the city being an independent state prior to the time of Puzur-Ashur I, who ruled c. 2025 BC.[8][11] The earliest archaeological evidence known from Assur predates the Akkadian Empire by only a few centuries, being from c. 2600 BC[12] or c. 2500 BC.[13] At this time, the surrounding region was already relatively urbanized,[3] a development that might perhaps have resulted from being influenced by the heavily urbanized southern Mesopotamia.[14] Archaeological evidence from the Early Dynastic Period is in general far more scarce in northern Mesopotamia, including around Assur, than in southern Mesopotamia.[15] Much of the early historical remains of Assur may have been destroyed during the extensive construction projects of later Assyrian kings, who worked to create level foundations for the buildings they erected in the city.[16] Very little concrete information is known about Assur in the early period, and most researchers do not treat the city as liable for much historical analysis until the Old Assyrian period, initiated by Puzur-Ashur I.[1]
Early Assur was probably a local religious and tribal center, suggested by the early presence of temples at the site.[9][17] The presence of monumental temples suggests that there was a town of some size surrounding the temples, and that the site was not just a small cult place.[18] Assur was built in a highly strategic location; on a hill overlooking the Tigris river, protected by a river on one side and a canal on another.[8] The region was however relatively arid, located just north of the artificially irrigated lands of southern Mesopotamia.[19]
Later Assyrian kings used the name "Baltil" or "Baltila" to refer to the earliest portion of Assur, or perhaps to a preceding settlement in the same location. "Baltila" is a name of Hurrian origin, attested as a personal name among Hurrians near the city of Nuzi.[6] According to a stele erected by the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus some two thousand years later, Baltila was the capital of the land of Subir. Subir, which also appears in the variants Subar and Subartu, is attested as a name for the land surrounding Assur, but the later Assyrians rarely used it. The reason for the name being dropped in later times appears to be that it took on a derogatory meaning: during the Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1894–1595 BC), so many slaves were imported from "Subartu" that "Subarian" in effect became a synonym for "slave".[20]
Political history
During much of the early Assyrian period, Assur was dominated by states and polities from southern Mesopotamia.[21] The city was occupied by the Akkadian Empire and then the Third Dynasty of Ur.[8] Prior to this, Assur had also for a time been one of the many Mesopotamian cities under the loose hegemony of the Sumerian city of Kish.[17]
Under the Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian Empire probably conquered Assur in the reign of its first ruler, Sargon (c. 2334–2279 BC),[17] and is known to have controlled the city at least from the reign of Manishtushu (c. 2270–2255 BC) onwards, as contemporary inscriptions dedicated to Manishtushu have been recovered from the city.[22] One inscription dedicated to Manishtushu was inscibed on the bronze point of a spear by Azazu, a local ruler of Assur who was the Akkadian king's vassal.[23] Azazu's inscription was also dedicated to a deity, but the name, perhaps Ashur, is not clearly preserved.[24] Texts of the Akkadian period from Nuzi illustrate that Assur was an important local outpost and administrative center under the Akkadian Empire, frequently staffed with Akkadian officials.[22] A palace, similar to a palace built by the Akkadian king Naram-Sin at Tell Brak, was also constructed in the city.[22]
The earliest inscription known from Assur, preceding that of Azazu, was made by the Išši'ak Aššur (governor of Assur) Ititi, son of a man called Ininlaba. Ititi was presumably also an Akkadian vassal. Both the names Ititi and Ininlaba are also attested in Nuzi.
There is archaeological and literary evidence that Assur's golden age under the Akkadian kings came to a violent end. The remains of temples from the early period at both Assur and Nineveh indicate that they were violently destroyed. According to the later Babylonian text Legend of Naram-Sin, a strange-looking army of the Lullubi invaded the northern parts of the Akkadian Empire before continuing southwards and eventually reaching Babylon itself. Archaeological evidence of Naram-Sin's palace at Tell Brak demonstrate that it was also sacked. According to the Assyriologist Hildegard Lewy, it can thus be assumed that the Lullubi did in fact invade Mesopotamia and destroyed Assur at this time.[28]
Under the Third Dynasty of Ur
Assur was restored at some point after its destruction by the Lullubi. The Akkadian Empire collapsed in the early 22nd century BC, probably due to rebellions in southern Mesopotamia and the invasions from the eastern Gutians. What impact the collapse of the empire had on Assur cannot be determined from the surviving evidence, but other sources indicate that much of Mesopotamia again fractured into small city-states, perhaps including Assur.[29]
Within a century of the Akkadian Empire's collapse, southern Mesopotamia was reunited by the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC). The rulers of Ur were not as concerned about northern Mesopotamia as the Akkadians had been, but they did conduct campaigns and conquests in the region and established control over Assur. Unlike the south, which they ruled directly, peripheral cities such as Assur were placed under the rule of governors. The military administration of governors ensured loyalty and tribute.[30] In the ruins of one of Assur's temples, dedicated to Ishtar, an inscription written by the governor (šakkanakkum) Zariqum states that he founded a new temple in the city, dedicated to the goddess Bēlat-ekallim (i.e. Ninegal), for the life of Amar-Sin (c. 2046–2037 BC), king of Ur.[31][b]
The period of Sumerian dominance of Assur came to an end as the last king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Ibbi-Sin (c. 2028–2004 BC) lost his administrative grip on the peripheral regions of his empire and Assur became an independent city-state under its own rulers, beginning with Puzur-Ashur I c. 2025 BC.[33]
Early names in the Assyrian King List
Though there is no evidence of independent Assyrian rule during the early period, the
Lewy speculated that the "kings who lived in tents" were not kings at all, but the contemporary ancestors of the different tribes that eventually became the Assyrian people, similar to the
The only names among the early names on the king list that are mentioned in later ancient sources outside of the list is Ushpia, the 17th name mentioned,[38] and Kikkia, the 28th name.[43] Ushpia is stated in the inscriptions of the significantly later Assyrian kings Shalmaneser I (c. 1273–1244 BC) and Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) to have been the original builder of the temple dedicated to Ashur in Assur,[44] and thus in effect the founder of the city itself.[38] Although it is possible that Shalmaneser I got Ushpia's name from oral tradition or from inscriptions that no longer survive, it is also strange that the name of the supposed founder, if he was real, of the city and its first temples does not appear in known inscriptions until about a millennium later.[45] Kikkia is mentioned in the inscriptions of Ashur-rim-nisheshu (c. 1408–1401 BC) and Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) as the supposed first builder of a wall around Assur.[43]
Archaeological evidence
There is very little surviving evidence of what type of settlement Assur was in the early period.
Also recovered in conjunction with these temples were 87 alabaster figures of worshippers, ranging in height from 20 to 65 centimeters (8 to 26 inches), depicting both men and women.[47] The style of these figures resembles Sumerian figures of the ED II and ED III periods. One of the early figures found at Assur is a head of a female figure, wearing a fillet. This head is typical of the art style of the Akkadian period, with smooth and soft curves and a full mouth. As it was found in association with the Ishtar G temple, it indicates that the temple continued to be used well into the Akkadian period as well.[48] In addition to the alabaster figures of worshippers, also recovered were 24 stone statues of naked women, five statues of animals, a number of incense burners/pot stands and three large clay altars or house models.[47] A unique figure among the recovered finds was an ivory figurine of a nude woman, alongside fragments of at least five additional similar figurines. The ivory used might have come from Indian elephants, which would indicate trade between Assur and the early tribes and states of Iran. Also found among the artefacts of Ishtar G are a clay bottle with the features of a nude woman as well as a figurine of a man with an erect penis.[48]
In addition to the figures and the architecture, other archaeological finds, including pottery and a vase, from early Assur also demonstrate strong Sumerian influence. Found in one of the temples was also a fragment of a bedstead which depicts a woman lying down, wearing a choker, earrings and several rings with exposed breasts; the typical style associated with a deceased Sumerian noblewoman who was to be buried.[5]
Society
Population and culture
It is impossible to confidently determine the ethnic composition of Assur's early population based only on material evidence[49] but it is unlikely to have been homogenous. The population of Assur in the early period was likely mostly tribal and would probably have predominantly spoken a Semitic language,[50] likely Akkadian from a relative early point in time.[4] As suggested by the historical evidence concerning Baltil and Subartu, the site of Assur and the surrounding lands were probably originally inhabited by Hurrians,[3][4] who were either assimilated[3] or displaced[4] at some point when the Semitic-speaking ancestors of the later Assyrians settled the region. If they were driven out, the Hurrians of Assur and the surrounding region might then have migrated to the mountains in the east, where Hurrians are firmly historically attested in later periods.[4] According to the Assyriologist Georges Roux, many of the early names in the Assyrian King List, such as Tudiya, Ushpia, Sulili and Kikkia, are not Semitic or Akkadian in origin, but could perhaps be Hurrian.[8]
The strong Sumerian influence seen in the Ishtar H and G temples might suggest that there was not only Sumerian influence in Assur during this time, but perhaps that the site was for a time in its early history inhabited by a group of Sumerians alongside the locals,[51] or possibly even that it was conquered by some unknown Sumerian ruler.[50]
Religion
The earliest temples in Assur being devoted to Ishtar,
Although worship of Ashur, the Assyrian national deity, is well-attested in the Old Assyrian period,[55] there is no concrete evidence of worship of Ashur from the early period. The texts from the Akkadian period that explicitly name the city as Assur are the first indirect references to Ashur, since the god shares the city's name.[38] Though they are commonly distinguished by modern historians through calling the god Ashur and the city Assur, both were inscribed in the exact same way in ancient times (Aššur). Because Old Assyrian documents sometimes appear to not differentiate between the city and the god, it is believed that Ashur is a deified personification of the city itself. Perhaps the site of the city, originating as a holy site prior to the city's construction and settled due to its strategic location came to gradually be regarded as divine in its own right at some point in the early period.[56] Assyrians of later periods linked Ashur to Ishtar[52] and though it was never expressly stated, they were sometimes mentioned together in inscriptions as if they were husband and wife.[56] Ashur's role as a deity was flexible and changed with the changing culture and politics of the Assyrians themselves. Though he would in later centuries be regarded as a god of war, guiding the Assyrian kings on their campaigns, he was in Old Assyrian (and presumably also late Early Assyrian) times seen as a god of death and revival, related to agriculture.[57] Though it was no longer Ashur's main function in later periods, his agricultural role continued to remain prominent. One of Ashur's main associated symbols as late as the Neo-Assyrian Empire was the "Tree of Life", which represented the revival of life every spring. As such, he still retained his status as a god of death and revival.[58]
See also
Notes
- ^ The nearby Nineveh is for instance known to have been inhabited millennia earlier, since the Neolithic period.[10]
- ^ It has also been suggested that Zariqum was an independent ruler, who only recognized the overlordship of the Ur III kings, but this is a minority view.[32]
- ^ It has been suggested that Sulili could be identified with Silulu, an early period ruler (presumably governor under the Akkadians or Sumerians) of Assur, but the name is spelt differently and Silulu's inscription names his father as Dakiki whereas the Assyrian King List names Sulili's father as Aminu.[41][42]
References
- ^ a b c d Veenhof & Eidem 2008, p. 19.
- ^ Oates 1967, p. 83.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Liverani 2014, p. 208.
- ^ a b c d e f Lewy 1971, p. 733.
- ^ a b c d Mallowan 1971, p. 300.
- ^ a b c Lewy 1971, p. 731.
- ^ Liverani 2014, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Roux 1992, p. 187.
- ^ a b c Mallowan 1971, p. 298.
- ^ a b Garfinkle 2007, p. 61.
- ^ a b Aubet 2013, p. 276.
- ^ Lewy 1971, pp. 729–730.
- ^ a b Düring 2020, p. 31.
- ^ Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 54.
- ^ Mallowan 1971, p. 291.
- ^ Lewy 1971, p. 729.
- ^ a b c d Foster 2016, chapter 3.
- ^ Düring 2020, p. 30.
- ^ Elayi 2017, p. 38.
- ^ Lewy 1971, pp. 732–733.
- ^ Garfinkle 2007, p. 63.
- ^ a b c d e Lewy 1971, p. 734.
- ^ a b c Grayson 1972, p. 2.
- ^ Grayson 1972, p. 3.
- ^ Foster 2016, chapter 2.
- ^ Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 71.
- ^ Lewy 1971, p. 735.
- ^ Lewy 1971, pp. 739–740.
- ^ Garfinkle 2007, p. 62.
- ^ Garfinkle 2007, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Lewy 1971, p. 746.
- ^ Michałowski 2009, p. 155.
- ^ Veenhof & Eidem 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Foster 2016, chapter 9.
- ^ Lendering 2006.
- ^ Grayson 1972, pp. 2–6.
- ^ a b van Driel 1969, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d Lewy 1971, p. 745.
- ^ Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 89.
- ^ Chavalas 1994, p. 117.
- ^ a b Veenhof & Eidem 2008, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Grayson 1972, p. 5.
- ^ a b Lewy 1971, p. 747.
- ^ Lewy 1971, p. 744.
- ^ van Driel 1969, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Mallowan 1971, p. 299.
- ^ a b Düring 2020, p. 32.
- ^ a b Mallowan 1971, pp. 299–300.
- ^ Bär 2003, p. 16.
- ^ a b Mallowan 1971, p. 301.
- ^ Breasted 1926, p. 153.
- ^ a b Monaghan 2014, p. 37.
- ^ Lewy 1971, pp. 737–738.
- ^ Foster 2016, chapter 11.
- ^ Lambert 1983, p. 83.
- ^ a b Lambert 1983, pp. 82–85.
- ^ Breasted 1926, p. 164.
- ^ James 1966, p. 42.
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