History of Islam

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(Redirected from
Early history of Islam
)

early biographies of Muhammad; according to him, Islamic views on the birth date of Muhammad until the 8th century CE had a diversity of 85 years span.[2]

The history of Islam concerns the

prophets, such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus, with the submission (Islām) to the will of God.[6][7][8]

According to the

divine revelations in 610 CE, calling for submission to the one God, preparation for the imminent Last Judgement, and charity for the poor and needy.[7][Note 1]
As Muhammad's message
migrated to the city of Yathrib (now known as Medina), where he began to unify the tribes of Arabia under Islam,[11] returning to Mecca to take control in 630[12][13] and order the destruction of all pagan idols.[14][15]
By the time he died in about 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam,[16] but disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community during the Rāshidūn Caliphate.[4][17][18][19]

The

mathematicians, physicians, and philosophers during the Middle Ages.[5]

By the early 13th century, the

—emerged as world powers.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the

Great Powers.[5] Some of their efforts to win independence and build modern nation-states over the course of the last two centuries continue to reverberate to the present day, as well as fuel conflict-zones in regions such as Palestine, Kashmir, Xinjiang, Chechnya, Central Africa, Bosnia, and Myanmar. The oil boom stabilized the Arab States of the Gulf Cooperation Council (comprising Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates), making them the world's largest oil producers and exporters, which focus on capitalism, free trade, and tourism.[23][24]

Timeline

The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to the

Mamluks of Iraq
.

Sultanate of RumMughal EmpireDelhi SultanateGhaznavidsvariousMongolsvariousvariousKhedivateQajarsSafavidsMongolsOttomansMamluksAyyubidsFatimidsAbbasid CaliphateUmayyadsRashidun
Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details.

Early sources and historiography

The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources.[25] For example, the most important historiographical source for the origins of Islam is the work of al-Tabari.[26] While al-Tabari is considered an excellent historian by the standards of his time and place, he made liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped, distorted, and polemical presentations of subject matter—which are however considered to be Islamically acceptable—and his descriptions of the beginning of Islam post-date the events by several generations, al-Tabari having died in 923 CE.[27][28]

Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today.[29][30]

Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. For scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are more often followed.[29]

After the 8th century CE, the quality of sources improves.

Syriac Christian sources for Syria and Iraq.[36]

Until the early 1970s,[37] Non-Muslim scholars of Islamic studies—while not accepting accounts of divine intervention—did accept its origin story in most of its details.[38][39] On the dates said, historians called

Christoph Luxenberg.[42]
These studies yielded the following results:

Coin of the Rāshidūn Caliphate (632–675 CE). Pseudo-Byzantine type with depictions of the Byzantine emperor Constans II holding the cross-tipped staff and globus cruciger.

Origins of Islam

Arabia united under Muhammad (7th century CE)

Early Islam arose within the historical, social, political, economic, and religious context of

Arabic throughout the peninsula.[52] The Ḥanīf ("renunciates"), a group of monotheists that sought to separate themselves both from the foreign Abrahamic religions and the traditional Arab polytheism,[53] were looking for a new religious worldview to replace the pre-Islamic Arabian religions,[53] focusing on "the all-encompassing father god Allah whom they freely equated with the Jewish Yahweh and the Christian Jehovah."[54] In their view, Mecca was originally dedicated to this monotheistic faith that they considered to be the one true religion, established by the patriarch Abraham.[53][54]

According to the

Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca, an important caravan trading center,[55] around the year 570 CE.[56] His family belonged to the Arab clan of Quraysh, which was the chief tribe of Mecca and a dominant force in western Arabia.[9][57] To counter the effects of anarchy (particularly raiding for booty between tribes), they upheld the institution of "sacred months" when all violence was forbidden and travel was safe.[58] The polytheistic Kaaba shrine in Mecca and the surrounding area was a popular pilgrimage destination for surrounding Arabs, which was a significant source of revenue for the city.[58][59]

Close-up of one leave showing chapter division and verse-end markings written in Hijazi script from the Birmingham Quran manuscript, dated between c. 568 and 645, held by the University of Birmingham.

Most likely Muhammad was "intimately aware of Jewish belief and practices," and acquainted with the Ḥanīf.

hijra, as the start of the Islamic era.[66]

1314 manuscript illustration by Rashid ad-Din depicting the Negus of medieval Abyssinia declining a Meccan delegation's request to surrender the early Muslims.

In Yathrib, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the

his death in 632 CE, tribal chiefs across the Arabian peninsula entered into various agreements with him, some under terms of alliance, others acknowledging his claims of prophethood and agreeing to follow Islamic practices, including paying the alms levy to his government, which consisted of a number of deputies, an army of believers, and a public treasury.[66]

The real intentions of Muhammad regarding the spread of Islam, its political undertone, and his missionary activity (da'wah) during his lifetime are a contentious matter of debate, which has been extensively discussed both among Muslim scholars and Non-Muslim scholars within the academic field of Islamic studies.[68] Various authors, Islamic activists, and historians of Islam have proposed several understandings of Muhammad's intent and ambitions regarding his religio-political mission in the context of the pre-Islamic Arabian society and the founding of his own religion:[68]

Was it in Muhammad's mind to produce a world religion or did his interests lie mainly within the confines of his homeland? Was he solely an Arab nationalist—a political genius intent upon uniting the proliferation of tribal clans under the banner of a new religion—or was his vision a truly international one, encompassing a desire to produce a reformed humanity in the midst of a new world order? These questions are not without significance, for a number of the proponents of contemporary da'wah activity in the West trace their inspiration to the prophet himself, claiming that he initiated a worldwide missionary program in which they are the most recent participants. [...] Despite the claims of these and other writers, it is difficult to prove that Muhammad intended to found a world-encompassing faith superseding the religions of Christianity and Judaism. His original aim appears to have been the establishment of a succinctly Arab brand of monotheism, as indicated by his many references to the Qurʾān as an Arab book and by his accommodations to other monotheistic traditions.[68]

Rashidun Caliphate

ʿUthmān
(654 CE)
  Strongholds of the Rāshidūn Caliphate

After the

Egypt, and North Africa.[9]

Alongside the growth of the

Punjab region under the reign of the Umayyad dynasty
.

Muawiyah IAli ibn Abi TalibUthman ibn AffanUmar ibn al-KhattabAbu BakrMuhammadRashidunUmayyad accessionFirst FitnaRashidun CaliphateRidda warsMuhammad after the conquest of MeccaMuhammad in Medina

After Muhammad's death,

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, the Arab Muslim armies, whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels[74] and former imperial auxiliary troops,[75] invaded the eastern Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt, while the Sasanids lost their western territories, with the rest of Persia to follow soon afterwards.[72]

The rāshidūn caliphs used symbols of the Sasanian Empire (crescent-star, fire temple, depictions of the last Sasanian emperor Khosrow II) by adding the Arabic expression bismillāh on their coins, instead of designing new ones.[76]

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb improved the administration of the fledgling Islamic empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks, and playing a role in foundation of cities like Basra. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, ʿUmar established the Bayt al-mal,[77][78][79] a welfare institution for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rāshidūn Caliphate in the 7th century CE and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. ʿUmar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.[80][81][82][83] When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[84] The expansion was partially halted between 638 and 639 CE during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and the Levant, respectively, but by the end of ʿUmar's reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia were incorporated into the early Islamic empire.

Local populations of

Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges.[88][89]

In 639 CE, ʿUmar appointed

Syria after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[90][91] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab–Byzantine wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, with ships crewed by Monophysite Christians, Egyptian Coptic Christians, and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 CE, opening up the Mediterranean Sea to Muslim ships.[92][93][94][95]

Eastern territories of the Byzantine Empire invaded by the Arab Muslims during the Arab–Byzantine wars (650 CE)

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because ʿUmar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[84][96][97][98] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[99]

When ʿUmar was assassinated in 644 CE,

Syria (formerly under the Byzantine Empire) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic empire to be in their area.[101]

As ʿUthmān became very old,

Day of Ashura. Political unrest called the second Muslim civil war (the "Second Fitna") continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah I to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded into North Africa. In 664 CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered Kabul,[105] and in 665 CE pushed further into the Maghreb.[106]

Umayyad Caliphate

Territories of the Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from

Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina
, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the

Ummayad family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-Andalus
. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[115] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[116] slandering the Prophet's family[117] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[118] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.

Twelver
, etc.

The period under

postal service
.

Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. This tactic was crucial for the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.

siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria
on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[122] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the Berber Revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[123] Hisham died in 743.

coup.[125] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of God and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd al-Rahman
who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there.

Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate

Abbasid caliphate in the 850s

The

Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754–775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786–809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.[130] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[131] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[132][133] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[134][131]

Gold dinar of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur (r. 754–775) the founder of Baghdad, patron of art and science

The capital was moved from Damascus to

Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo
).

During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the

Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.[130] Two other Turkish tribes, the Karahanids and the Seljuks, converted to Islam during the 10th century. Later, they were subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader Alp Arslan (1063 – 1072) financially supported sciences and literature and established the Nezamiyeh university in Baghdad.[137]

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful

Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 and 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[138]

The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to

Shia, two major denominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world
theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic

Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[142][143]

Golden Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

Al-AminHarun al-RashidAl-HadiAl-MahdiAl-MansurAs-Saffah

According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.[144]

An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.

In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, Al-Hadi[145] was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.

The military conflicts subsided as

Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.[147]

Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the Fourth Fitna. Al-Ma'mun's general Tahir ibn Husayn took Baghdad, executing Al-Amin.[148] The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty.

Rise of regional powers

Regional powers born out of the fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate

The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among

Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.[151]

High Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

Ar-RadiAl-QahirAl-MuqtadirAl-MuktafiAl-Mu'tadidAl-Mu'tamidAl-MuhtadiAl-Mu'tazzAl-Musta'inAl-MuntasirAl-MutawakkilAl-WathiqAl-Mu'tasimAl-Ma'mun

Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[152] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid family became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the

Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.[153] The Ulama
emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[154] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.

Gold dinar of Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) the founder of Samarra, patron of art and science

During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid family continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.[155]

Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.[156]

.

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever,

Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī
, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasid Caliph to assume power.

High Abbasids
Jurisprudence
Four constructions of Islamite law
Early Abbasids
Literature and Science
  • Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator;
  • Ibn Fadlan
    , explorer;
  • Al Battani
    , astronomer;
  • Tabari
    , historian and theologian;
  • Al-Razi
    , philosopher, medic, chemist;
  • Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher;
  • Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician;
  • Alhazen
    , mathematician;
  • Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
  • Omar Khayyám
    , poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
  • Mansur Al-Hallaj
    , Sufism mystic, writer and teacher

Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At

al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids
became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.

Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the

Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir
. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognize the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[158] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son

alms
, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the

Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid
) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s,

Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.[159]

Middle Baghdad Abbasids

Early High Middle Ages

Al-MuqtadiAl-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)Al-QadirAt-Ta'iAl-MutiAl-MustakfiAl-Muttaqi
Dirham of Al-Muttaqi

At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara

Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.[160]

Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims

Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad,

Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.[161]

The next Caliph,

Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[162]

During al-Qadir's Caliphate,

Muʿtazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[163]
By 1000, the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent.

During

Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.[164]

Late Baghdad Abbasids

Late High Middle Ages

Seventh CrusadeSixth CrusadeFifth CrusadeFourth CrusadeThird CrusadeKingdom of JerusalemSecond CrusadeFirst CrusadeAl-Musta'simAl-Mustansir (Baghdad)Az-Zahir (Abbasid caliph)An-NasirAl-MustadiAl-MustanjidAl-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)Al-Rashid (12th century)Al-MustarshidAl-Mustazhir
Al-Aqsa Mosque
Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985
Dome of Al Aqsa Mosque

The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the

Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.[163]

Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.[166]

After the siege of Damascus (1134),

Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.[163]

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the

Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157)
. The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.

The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin became the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.

Al-Mustansir
, was made caliph.

Al-Mustansir founded the

Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[171]

Baghdad was sacked
and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517)

The "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages

Ninth CrusadeEighth CrusadeAl-Mutawakkil IIIAl-Mu'tasim (Cairo)Al-Mustansir II of Cairo

The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[172][173]

Fatimid Caliphate

Fatimid Caliphate in 1000

The

Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[177][178][179]

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[180] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[181]

Fatimid caliphs

Early and High Middle Ages

Kingdom of JerusalemSecond CrusadeFirst Crusadeal-'Āḍidal-Fā'izal-Ẓāfiral-Hafizal-Amiral-Musta'liMa'ad al-Mustansir BillahAli az-ZahirAl-Hakim bi-Amr AllahAbu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz BillahAl-Muizz LideenillahIsmail al-MansurMuhammad al-Qa'im Bi-AmrillahUbayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah
Also see:
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
(above)

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they travelled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.[182]

Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Jamali
.

Al Mahdi

Arabic: المنصوريه), near Kairouan, Tunisia, was the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate during the rules of the Imams Al-Mansur Billah (r. 946–953) and Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah
(r. 953–975).

The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969, and he built a new palace city there, near Fusṭāt, which he also called al-Manṣūriyya. Under

Fatimid Egypt), founding a new capital at al-Qāhira (Cairo) in 969.[176] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer",[186] which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria, as well as Sicily
.

Under the

Song Dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages
.

After the eighteenth Imam,

at-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim
, who was then two years old. After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the
Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria
.

Crusades

Ninth Crusade
1271–1272

Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Edessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and Jerusalem.[189]

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian

Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[190]

In the

Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further expansion into Christendom[191]
and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.

Ayyubid dynasty

Ayyubid empire

The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.[192]

Sultans of Egypt

Seventh CrusadeSixth CrusadeFifth CrusadeFourth CrusadeThird CrusadeKingdom of JerusalemAl-Ashraf MusaAl-Muazzam TuranshahAs-Salih AyyubAl-Adil IIAl-KamilAl-AdilAl-Mansur MuhammadAl-Aziz UthmanSaladin

Sultans and Amirs of Damascus

Seventh CrusadeSixth CrusadeFifth CrusadeFourth CrusadeThird CrusadeKingdom of JerusalemAn-Nasir YusufAl-Muazzam TuranshahAs-Salih AyyubAl-Salih IsmailAs-Salih AyyubAl-Adil IIAl-KamilAs-Salih IsmailAl-AshrafAn-Nasir DawudAl-Mu'azzamAl-AdilAl-Afdal ibn Salah al-DinSaladin

Emirs of Aleppo

Seventh CrusadeSixth CrusadeFifth CrusadeFourth CrusadeThird CrusadeKingdom of JerusalemAn-Nasir YusufAl-Aziz MohammadAz-Zahir GhaziSaladin

Mongol period

Mongol conquests

The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, depicted studying the Quran inside a tent. Illustration of Rashid-ad-Din, first quarter of the 14th century, Staatsbibliothek, Berlin.

While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of

Ilkhans of Chingisid descendence claimed to be defenders of Islam, perhaps even the heirs of the Abbasid Caliphate.[197](p59) Some Sufi Muslim writers, like Aflaki and Abu Bakr Rumi, were favourably impressed by the Mongols' conquest of Islamic states and subjugation of Muslim rulers to their military and political power, considering their invasions and expansion as a legitimate divine punishment from God, as the Mongols and Turkic peoples from the Eurasian Steppe were regarded as more pious than the Muslim scholars, ascetics, and muftis of their time.[197](p81) During this era, the Persian Sufi poet and mystic Jalaluddin Rumi (1207–1273) wrote his masterpiece, the Masnavi, which he believed to be "sent down" from God and understood it as the proper explanation of the Quran (tafsīr).[197](p97) Muslim scholars, such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, studied in the Maragheh observatory, erected by Hulegu Khan.[198]

From the 13th to the 14th centuries, both

the Unseen" (al-Ghaib).[197](p24) A sharp distinction between Sunnī, Shīʿa, and heterodox Islamic beliefs did not exist. Therefore, ideas from foreign cultures were easier to integrate into the Islamic worldview.[195]

While many scholars had hold the opinion that Turks and Mongols converted to

Central Asian culture,[195][199] as well as through the preaching of Sufi Muslim wandering ascetics and mystics (fakirs and dervishes),[195][200] this view has been challenged in recent years.[195][201] Since the Battle of Talas (752), Muslim heresiographers never mentioned Turkic or Mongolian beliefs as heretic.[202] Despite doctrinal differences, some Muslim authors, such as Al-Nuwayri, stated that the Mongols had heavenly approval and would live in accordance with the strictions of Islamic law.[203] Aflaki identifies the Turks and Mongols with the army of Muhammad's wrath mentioned in a hadith. He further casts the Mongols both as God's punishment from hell, as well as people who follow the will of the Creator in his Manaqib al-`Arifin, although inferior to the saints.[204] In the writings of Aflaki, a later disciple of Rumi, the Mongols are described as being so impressed by Rumi's devotion to God, that they believed an assault on Rumi would cause the wrath of God upon them.[205]

Islamic Mongol empires

Goharshad Mosque built by the Timurid Empire

Ultimately, the

Samarqand, the cosmopolitan capital of Timur's empire, flourished under his rule as never before, while Iran and Iraq suffered large-scale devastation.[209] The Middle East was still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population in the region. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many strong empires of Islam, including the Mughals of India.[210][211]

Timurid Renaissance

Tamerlane chess, invented by Amir Timur. The pieces approximate the appearance of the chess pieces in 14th century Persia.

The

sciences, spreading across both the eastern and western world.[212]

Remarkable was the invention of

Islamic scholars and scientists. A number of Islamic learning centres and mosques were built, most notably the Ulugh Beg Observatory
.

The prosperity of the city of Herat is said to have competed with those of Florence, the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.[213][214]

The aspects of the Timurid Renaissance were later brought in

Ottoman Turkey and the Safavid Iran.[218]

Mamluk Sultanate

Mamluk Sultanate (in red) and the Mongol Ilkhanate
(in blue) (1250–1382)

In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by

Mamluk Sultanate was born. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol Empire during the Mongol invasions of the Levant
.

In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mongol invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut.[219] The Mamluks, who were

Caucasian, and Southeastern European origins[220][221][222] (see Saqaliba), forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[136] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the Crusader states in the Levant. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[223]

The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (

madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo (for further informations, see Mamluk architecture
).

Proto-Salafism

In scholasticism,

Bahri Sultans

Ninth CrusadeEighth CrusadeHajji IIBarquqas-Salih Salah-ad-Din Hajji Ial-Mansur Ala'a-ad-Din Alial-Ashraf Zayn-ad-Din Abu al-Mali Shabanal-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Muhammadan-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasanas-Salih Salah-ad-Din bin Muhammadan-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Mali al-Hasanal-Muzaffar Sayf-ad-Din Hajji Ial-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban Ias-Salih Imad-ad-Din IsmailShihab ad-Din AhmadKujukSaif ad-Din Abu-Bakran-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din MuhammadBaibars IIan-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din MuhammadLajinal-Adil Kitbughaan-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammadal-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din KhalilQalawunSolamishAl-Said BarakahBaibarsal-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din QutuzAl-Mansur Alial-Ashraf Muzafar ad-Din Musaal-Muizz Izz-ad-Din AybakShajar al-Durr

Burji Sultans

Tuman bay IIal-Ashraf Qansuh al-GhawriTuman bay IJanbalataz-Zahir Qansuhan-Ashraf Muhammadal-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bayaz-Zahir Timurbughaaz-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Bilbayaz-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Khushqadamal-Muayyad Shihab-ad-Din Ahmadal-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Inalal-Mansur Fakhr-ad-Din Uthmanaz-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Jaqmaqal-Aziz Jamal-ad-Din YusufBarsbayas-Salih Nasir-ad-Din Muhammadaz-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Tataral-Muzaffar Ahmadal-Muayyad Sayf-ad-Din TatarAl-Musta'in (Cairo)an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Farajal-Mansur Izz-ad-Din Abd-al-Azizan-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Farajaz-Zahir Sayf ad-Din BarquqHajji IIaz-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq
See also:
Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era

Al-Andalus

arabesque
designs.

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General

Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[234]

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of

Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Caliph of Córdoba (912-961).[235] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[236] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[237] Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[238]

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of

taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[240]

Emirs of Al-Andalus

Abd ar-Rahman IIIAbdallah ibn Muhammadal-Mundhir of CórdobaMuhammad I of CórdobaAbd ar-Rahman IIal-Hakam IHisham IAbd ar-Rahman I

Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.[241] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[242]

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.[243]

The exterior of the Mezquita.

Rahman I's successor was his son

Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the meantime Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.[244]

Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.[245]

Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi
.

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muwallad. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor

Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.[246][247][248]

Caliphs of Al-Andalus

Hisham IIIMuhammad III of CórdobaAbd ar-Rahman VAbd ar-Rahman IVSulayman ibn al-HakamHisham IISulayman ibn al-HakamMohammed IIHisham IIAl-Hakam IIAbd ar-Rahman III

Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia

Ishaq ibn AliIbrahim ibn TashfinTashfin ibn AliAli ibn YusufYusuf ibn TashfinAbu-Bakr Ibn-UmarAbdallah ibn Yasin
  Ifriqiyah,   Iberian

Almohad caliphs

Idris IIUmarAliAbd al-Wahid IIIdris IYahyaAbdallah al-AdilAbd al-Wahid IAbu Ya'qub Yusuf IIMuhammad an-NasirAbu Yusuf Ya'qub al-MansurAbu Ya'qub Yusuf IAbd al-Mu'minIbn Tumart

Islam in Africa

The

Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the Nubian kingdom of Makuria
was however repelled.

Maghreb

Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of Kairouan, Tunisia
.

Great Mosque of Kairouan[249] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[250]

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The

The

Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.[252]

The

Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.[253]

Horn of Africa

Ruins of Zeila (Saylac), Somalia.

The history of Islam in the

Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.[254]

Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of

Emperor of Aksum. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[254]

Great Lakes

The Great Mosque of Kilwa

Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.[255] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.

Local Islamic governments centered in

Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[256]

Islam in East Asia

Indian subcontinent

.

On the

Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[257]

Islamic rule first came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when

Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate,[260] a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo-Gangetic plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana
.

Many prominent sultanates and emirates administered various regions of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, such as the

Bahmani Sultanates, but none rivaled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its zenith.[261] The Bengal Sultanate in particular was a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with",[262] while the Shah Mir dynasty ensured the gradual conversion of Kashmiris
to Islam.

Persian culture, art, language, cuisine and literature grew in prominence in India due to Islamic administration and the immigration of soldiers, bureaucrats, merchants, Sufis, artists, poets, teachers and architects from Iran and Central Asia, resulting in the early development of Indo-Persian culture.

Southeast Asia

Demak
, the first Muslim state in Java

Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century,[136] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India, and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[263]

According to

Ceylon, modern-day Sri Lanka. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia).[264] According to an atlas created by the geographer Al-Biruni (973–1048), the Indian or Indonesian Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the Indian Ocean.[265]

Soon, many

Prince.

Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to

Spanish colonisers
beginning in the 16th century.

As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The

Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[268] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[136]

China

The Huaisheng Mosque of China, built by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas.

In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha,

Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh ibn Riyab) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the ChittagongKamrupManipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650–51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[269]

Early Modern period

In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the

Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration.[270]

Ottoman Empire

Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman miniature, 1579–1580, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Istanbul.

According to Ottoman historiography, the legitimation of a ruler is attributed to Sheikh Edebali who interpreted a dream of Osman Gazi as God's legitimation of his reign.[271] Since Murad I's conquest of Edirne in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.[272] During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as Selim I became the "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world.[273]

The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the

Orhan I.[276] Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbian Empire in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.[277]

The Ottoman Empire and sphere of influence at its greatest extent (1683)

Growth halted when Mongol warlord

muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[136] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[270]

The Süleymaniye Mosque (Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in 1557.

In the early 16th century, the Shiʿite

Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (nicknamed "Suleiman the Magnificent"), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire 10 years later. While Suleiman I's rule (1520–1566) is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the 18th century.[280][281]

Safavid Empire

Safavid Empire at its greatest extent under Shah Ismail I
(1501-1524)

The Shīʿīte

Kurdish,[283] but during their rule intermarried with Turcomans,[284] Georgians,[285] Circassians,[286][287] and Pontic Greeks.[288] The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism,[282] while the Iranian population was largely composed by Sunni Muslims.[289] After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him, Shah Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population of Iran to the Twelver sect of Shīʿa Islam so that he could get them to fight against the Sunni Ottomans.[290]

This resulted in the

established Twelver Shīʿīsm as the official religion of Safavid Iran and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.[291][292]

figures with their names at the top left.

In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removing casinos, taverns, and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.

Tahmasp's grandson,

Hotaki dynasty
, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Twelver Shīʿīsm.

Mughal Empire

Mughal India at its greatest extent, at the sharia apogee of Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir
.

Mughal Empire was a power that comprised almost all of

Mughal emperors had both parents of Central Asian ancestry, while successive emperors were of predominantly Rajput and Persian ancestry.[299] The dynasty was Indo-Persian in culture,[300] combining Persianate culture[301][302] with local Indian cultural influences[300] visible in its court culture and administrative customs.[303]

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder

Hindu Jats and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[309][310][311][312]

Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal
.

The reign of Shah Jahan (1628–1658) represented the height of Mughal architecture, with famous monuments such as the Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid, Red Fort, Jama Masjid and Lahore Fort being constructed during his reign.

The

Anglo-Mughal War were also witnessed.[316][317]

After the death of

sacked and looted
, drastically accelerating their decline.

In 1757, the

Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia based economic and military policies i.e. Fathul Mujahidin, replaced Bengal ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal as South Asia's foremost economic territory.[319][320] The Anglo-Mysore Wars were fought between Hyder Ali, his son Tipu and their French allies, including Napoleon Bonaparte, and the East India Company. Rocket artillery and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the Mysorean rockets, were used during the war and the Jihad based Fathul Mujahidin was compiled.

During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor,

Rangoon.[321] The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the British parliament passed the Government of India Act to enable the Crown formally to nationalize the East India Company and assume direct control of India in the form of the new British Raj
.

Modern period

The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European great powers globalized economically and colonized much of the region.[citation needed]

Ottoman Empire partition

Ottoman army in World War I

By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back

secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Arabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.[322]

During the First World War, the Allies cooperated with Arab partisans against the Ottoman Empire, both groups being united in opposition to a common enemy. The most prominent example of this was during the

guerillas against the Ottoman forces, eventually securing the withdrawal of all Ottoman troops from the region by 1918. Following the end of the war, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. However, many Arabs were left dismayed by the Balfour Declaration, which directly contradicted the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence publicized only a year earlier.[323] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.[324]

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as

Saudi royal family
.

Arab–Israeli conflict

The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern

Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab world and the State of Israel (see: Israeli–Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim-majority countries
.

The State of Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948 as a polity to serve as the homeland for the Jewish people. It was also defined in its declaration of independence as a "Jewish state", a term that also appeared in the United Nations Partition Plan for British Palestine in 1947. The related term of "Jewish and democratic state" dates from a 1992 legislation by Israel's Knesset.

The Six-Day War of 5–10 June 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The Arab countries closed the Suez Canal and it was followed in May 1970 by the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases.

In October 1973, a new war between Israel and its Muslim neighbours, known as the

1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab–Israeli conflict
, political and economic instability, and uncertainty about the future remain constant features of the politics of the region.

Many countries, individuals, and

clash of civilizations between the Western world and the Muslim world,[325][326] others oppose this view.[327]
Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

Other Islamic affairs

Modern Islamic world
Islam in the modern world
  •    
    Ibadi
    Islam

In 1979 the

Supreme Leader
. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power.

The development of the two opposite fringes, the

Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.[328][329] Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,[330] which resulted in the Iran–Iraq War
, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor."[10]
  2. ^ "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade."[10]
  3. ^ The name Mansuriyya means "the victorious", after its founder Ismāʿīl Abu Tahir Ismail Billah, called al-Mansur, "the victor."[185]

Citations

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  2. .
  3. .
  4. ^ .
  5. ^ .
  6. .
  7. ^ .
  8. .
  9. ^ .
  10. ^ .
  11. ^ Campo (2009), "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 494
  12. .
  13. .
  14. . London: Macmillan and Co. p. 118.
  15. .
  16. ^ Richard Foltz, "Internationalization of Islam", Encarta Historical Essays.
  17. ^ .
  18. ^ .
  19. ^ .
  20. . Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
  21. .
  22. ^ Julie Taylor, Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera, (Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 2003), 18.
  23. .
  24. ^ "International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". eia.gov.
  25. ^ Donner 2010, p. 628.
  26. ^ Robinson 2010, p. 6.
  27. ^ Robinson 2010, p. 2.
  28. ^ Hughes 2013, p. 56.
  29. ^ a b Donner 2010, p. 633.
  30. ^ See also Hughes 2013, pp. 6–7, who links the practice of source and tradition (or form) criticism as one approach.
  31. ^ Donner 2010, pp. 629, 633.
  32. ^ Donner 2010, p. 630.
  33. ^ Donner 2010, p. 631.
  34. ^ Donner 2010, p. 632.
  35. ^ a b c Robinson 2010, p. 9.
  36. ^ Robinson 2010, pp. 4–5.
  37. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.30
  38. ^ Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword, 2012: p.45
  39. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.29
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  41. ^ Nevo & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000: p.422-6
  42. ^ Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008: p.8
  43. ^ G. R. Hawting: The Idea of Idolatry and the Rise of Islam: From Polemic to History (1999); Fred Donner: Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (2010) p. 59
  44. ^ Fred Donner: Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (2010) pp. 68 ff.; cf. also Hans Jansen: Mohammed (2005/7) pp. 311-317 (German edition 2008)
  45. ^ Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: Hagarism (1977) pp. 22-24; Patricia Crone: Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1987); and the private researcher Dan Gibson: Quranic Geography (2011)
  46. ^ Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)
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  48. ^ Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: Hagarism (1977) p. 29; Yehuda D. Nevo: Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State (2003) pp. 410-413; Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Hrsg.): Der frühe Islam. Eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen (2007) pp. 336 ff.
  49. ^ Patricia Crone: Slaves on Horses. The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (1980) pp. 7, 12, 15; auch Hans Jansen: Mohammed (2005/7)
  50. .
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  52. ^ .
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  55. ^ "The very first question a biographer has to ask, namely when the person was born, cannot be answered precisely for Muhammad. [...] Muhammad's biographers usually make him 40 or sometimes 43 years old at the time of his call to be a prophet, which [...] would put the year of his birth at about 570 A.D." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 361.
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  59. ^ Hazleton 2013, p. "a sense of kinship".
  60. ^ Bleeker 1968, p. 32-34.
  61. ^ Sally Mallam, The Community of Believers
  62. ^ "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 363.
  63. ^ "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 364.
  64. ^ Robinson 2010, p. 187.
  65. ^ .
  66. ^ W. Montgomery Watt (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. pp. 1–17, 192–221.
  67. ^
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  68. .
  69. the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam
    in the ninth century.
  70. ^ [1] Archived September 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
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  72. ^ "The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires."Lapidus (2002, p. 32)
  73. ^ "In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the cause of Islam." W. Montgomery Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Abu Bakr", vol. 1, p. 110. "Umar's subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes which had rebelled during the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." Berkey (2003, p. 71)
  74. ^ [N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources hint that we should view many in Muhammad's west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads, not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of their imperial masters.Hoyland (2014, p. 227)
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  151. ^ Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
  152. ^ The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.
  153. ^ Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".
  154. ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991
  155. ^ Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.
  156. ^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.
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