Early life of Cleopatra

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Marble statue depicting a woman facing forward. She wears a diadem on her head with a triple uraeus (three snakes) on it. Inscribed on her right arm is a cartouche, and she holds a cornucopia in her left arm.
A contemporary marble statue of Cleopatra now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; she is identified by the cartouche inscribed on her upper right arm and the distinct triple uraeus on her diadem, a common characteristic of sculptural depictions of Cleopatra.[1]
Part of a series on
Cleopatra VII

The early life of

Ethiopian, Hebrew, Arabic, Median, Parthian, Latin, and her native Koine Greek
.

Cleopatra's father was a

Pompey the Great. After Ptolemy XII orchestrated the assassinations of Berenice IV's diplomats in Rome, seeking to gain Roman favor, he and Cleopatra left the city's hostile environment and settled at Ephesus in Anatolia
.

Pompey eventually convinced

Alexandrine war
.

Birth and tutelage

Cleopatra VII, in the Hellenistic Greek style, now in the Louvre. The features of the bust suggest it was reworked from an earlier Ptolemaic piece.[2][3]

Ptolemy XIV)[21][22][23] were born during the more than decade-long absence of his wife.[24][17]

Cleopatra V Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra VI), 1st century BC, from Lower Egypt, now in the Musée Saint-Raymond[25]

Little is known of Cleopatra's early life.

Musaeum (including the Library of Alexandria), and possibly wrote Greek medical works which may have been inspired by the physicians at her father's royal court.[28][27] Later Arab historians claimed that Cleopatra wrote medical texts,[27] but the long-held belief that Cleopatra was an author is, as Roller puts it, "obscure and full of problems... [and] Connecting these fragments to Cleopatra VII is, admittedly, difficult".[29] Several works from antiquity, which now only exist as fragments, were labeled as Cleopatra's although Roller argues that "by late antiquity Cleopatra VII was by far the most famous person of that name and there would be a tendency to assume that the fragments were hers.[30] Available to Cleopatra in historical records preserved by the 3rd-century BC Ptolemaic-era native Egyptian historian-priest Manetho were examples of strong, inspirational royal female predecessors (some of whom lived long before the Ptolemaic dynasty), such as Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, and Twosret.[31]

Ptolemaic

Ptolemaic Empire.[41]

Although

poleis) of Egypt, intermarriage was forbidden, although it was permitted in other parts of Egypt.[45]

Reign of Ptolemy XII and Roman interventionism

Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra VII;

Ptolemy IX Lathyros died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III.[51][52] With opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage to Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the son of Ptolemy IX's brother Ptolemy X Alexander I. The match was arranged by the dictator Sulla, the first powerful Roman figure to intervene directly in the dynastic affairs of kingdoms east of the Roman Republic.[51][52]

Ptolemy XI had his cousin-wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but he was killed soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination.[51][53][54] Ptolemy XI (and perhaps his uncle Ptolemy IX or his father) willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, so the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt (their client state).[51][12][55] They chose instead to carve up the Ptolemaic realm to be ruled by Ptolemy IX's two illegitimate sons, bestowing Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII.[51][53]

In 65 BC the

Mithridates VI of Pontus in the Third Mithridatic War) and Julius Caesar after the latter became consul in 59 BC.[58][59][55]

After Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar formed the alliance of the

Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.[63][64][20] In order to repay the loans, Ptolemy was required to collect the equivalent amount of money, as well as added interest, from his subjects.[62] His increase of the tax rate to pay for these expenditures angered the poor and led to strikes by farmers.[63][64]

Exile of Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra

Large stone watchtower with inscriptions
The Gate of Ptolemy XII at the Temple of Kom Ombo, partially built by Cleopatra's father[65]

In 58 BC, after Roman senator

Roman shipping, the Roman Republic annexed Cyprus, and Ptolemy of Cyprus chose to commit suicide rather than face exile to Paphos as a priest of Apollo.[66][67][20] Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which (along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans) damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.[66][68][69]

Whether by force or voluntary action, Ptolemy XII left Egypt in exile for

Praeneste.[66][72][73] Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his 11-year-old daughter Cleopatra.[66][20]

Fletcher expresses little doubt about this, noting an ancient Greek primary source stating that Ptolemy XII traveled with one of his daughters; since Berenice IV was his ruling rival and Arsinoe IV was a toddler, it must have been Cleopatra (who was later made his regent and named his successor in his will).[74] Grant likewise argues in favor of this notion, stating that Ptolemy XII would have found it imprudent to leave all of his daughters in Egypt, given the political turmoil.[75]

Events in Egypt are unclear around this time. It is thought that Ptolemy XII's daughter Berenice IV initially ruled jointly with Cleopatra VI Tryphaena. Cleopatra VI is then believed to have died, possibly subsequent to being ousted by Berenice.

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[81][82][83]

Return to Egypt from exile

To shore up her legitimacy with her subjects, Berenice IV married Archelaos (reportedly a descendant of Mithridates VI of Pontus); however, the Romans— especially desperate financiers of Ptolemy XII such as Rabirius Postumus—were determined to restore Ptolemy XII.[84] Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the mission.[84][72][85] Although it put him at odds with Roman law, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of Hasmonean Judea; Hyrcanus II had Antipater the Idumaean, the father of Herod the Great, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.[84][68]

Under Gabinius' command was the young cavalry officer

Tarsos to answer for her alleged support of Gaius Cassius Longinus in the Liberators' civil war of 43–42 BC.[90][91]

Gabinius was tried in Rome for abusing his authority and acquitted. A second trial found him guilty of accepting bribes and led to a seven-year exile, from which he was recalled in 48 BC by Julius Caesar.

Germanic and Gallic Roman garrison, were allowed to harass people in the streets of Alexandria.[95][96][97] Ptolemy XII installed his longtime Roman financier, Rabirius Postumus, as his chief financial officer.[95][98][99] Postumus was unable to collect all of Ptolemy XII's debt by the latter's death and it was passed on to his successors, Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII.[100][93] Within a year, Postumus was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome when his life was threatened for draining Egypt of its resources.[100][101][97]

During the last four years of his reign, Ptolemy XII oversaw major construction projects such as the completion of the Temple of Edfu and establishment of the Dendera Temple, and stabilized an economy largely reliant on trade with East Africa and India. He also designated Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.[102][101][99] A copy of his will was sent to Pompey to be kept in Rome, with the original being held in Alexandria.[101][103][104] According to an inscription in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera, Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII on 31 May 52 BC.[105][106][107]

Accession to the throne

Main article:
Reign of Cleopatra VII
Further information: Coronation of the pharaoh
Hellenistic royal diadem[110][114]

Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, the date of Cleopatra's first known act as queen: her voyage to

priesthood received a number of privileges and became extremely wealthy under their Ptolemaic patrons, often becoming targets of native Egyptian revolts.[121] Cleopatra is speculated to have had an Egyptian half-cousin, Pasherienptah III, the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis.[122] At the beginning of her reign Cleopatra sought the support and loyalty of the Egyptian priesthood, despite attempts by Ptolemy XIII to undermine this relationship.[123]

The

Ptolemy II and his sister, Arsinoe II, but the long-held royal Egyptian practice was considered scandalous by contemporary Greeks.[124][125][126] Although vocal critics of this incestuous practice were sometimes violently punished and suppressed during the joint reign of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II,[nb 2] sibling marriages were nevertheless considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers by the time of Cleopatra's reign.[124][125][126] Official documents began listing Cleopatra as sole ruler by 29 August 51 BC, evidence that she had rejected her brother as a co-ruler.[128][129][130]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The historian Stanley M. Burstein raises the possibility that Cleopatra and some of her siblings were illegitimate children of Ptolemy XII, based on a statement made by the contemporary Greek geographer Strabo, who specifically noted that Berenice IV was legitimate.[8][9][10] However, Strabo's reliability is questionable as he was biased against the Ptolemaic dynasty as a means to flatter the Romans;[9] no other classical sources mention this.[10]
  2. Macedon...killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of Zeus and Hera, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."[127]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Ashton 2001, p. 165.
  2. ^ Ashton 2001, p. 157.
  3. ^ a b Roller 2010, p. 18.
  4. ^ Roller 2010, p. 15.
  5. ^ Grant 1972, p. 4.
  6. ^ Preston 2009, p. 22.
  7. ^ Jones 2006, pp. xiii, 28.
  8. ^ a b c d Burstein 2004, p. 11.
  9. ^ a b Tyldesley 2008, p. 27.
  10. ^ a b Bennett 1997, p. 60.
  11. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 17–18.
  12. ^ a b c Burstein 2004, p. 12.
  13. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 68.
  14. ^ a b Roller 2010, pp. 18–19.
  15. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 68–69.
  16. ^ Grant 1972, pp. 3–4, 17.
  17. ^ a b Fletcher 2008, p. 69.
  18. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 268–269, 273.
  19. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 182.
  20. ^ a b c d e Fletcher 2008, p. 76.
  21. ^ Roller 2010, p. 16.
  22. ^ Anderson 2003, p. 38.
  23. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 73.
  24. ^ Roller 2010, p. 19.
  25. ^ Musée Saint-Raymond.
  26. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 45–46.
  27. ^ a b c Fletcher 2008, p. 81.
  28. ^ Roller 2010, p. 45.
  29. ^ Roller 2010, p. 49.
  30. ^ Roller 2010, p. 50.
  31. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 82–84.
  32. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 32–33.
  33. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 1, 3, 11, 129.
  34. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 29–33.
  35. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106.
  36. ^ a b Burstein 2004, pp. 11–12.
  37. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 33–34.
  38. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 46–48.
  39. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 5, 82, 88, 105–106.
  40. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 48–49.
  41. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 46–48, 100.
  42. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 13–14, 16–17, 43–52, 54.
  43. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 53-54, 80, 121.
  44. ^ Burstein 2004, p. 47.
  45. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 47–50.
  46. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 38–42.
  47. ^ a b Burstein 2004, pp. xviii, 10.
  48. ^ Grant 1972, pp. 9–12.
  49. ^ Grant 1972, p. 12.
  50. ^ Grant 1972, p. 9.
  51. ^ a b c d e Roller 2010, p. 17.
  52. ^ a b Grant 1972, pp. 10–11.
  53. ^ a b Burstein 2004, p. xix.
  54. ^ Grant 1972, p. 11.
  55. ^ a b Fletcher 2008, p. 74.
  56. ^ Roller 2010, p. 20.
  57. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. xix, 12–13.
  58. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 20–21.
  59. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. xx, 12–13.
  60. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 75.
  61. ^ Grant 1972, pp. 12–13.
  62. ^ a b Grant 1972, p. 13.
  63. ^ a b Roller 2010, p. 21.
  64. ^ a b c Burstein 2004, p. 13.
  65. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 149–150.
  66. ^ a b c d e Roller 2010, p. 22.
  67. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. xx, 13, 75.
  68. ^ a b Burstein 2004, pp. 13, 75.
  69. ^ Grant 1972, p. 14–15.
  70. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 76–77.
  71. ^ a b Burstein 2004, p. 75.
  72. ^ a b Burstein 2004, pp. xx, 13.
  73. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 77.
  74. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 76–77, 80, 84–85.
  75. ^ Grant 1972, p. 15.
  76. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 22–23.
  77. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 77–79.
  78. ^ Roller 2010, p. 23.
  79. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 77–78.
  80. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 78, 108.
  81. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 23–24.
  82. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 78.
  83. ^ Grant 1972, p. 16.
  84. ^ a b c Roller 2010, p. 24.
  85. ^ a b Fletcher 2008, p. 79.
  86. ^ a b Roller 2010, pp. 24–25.
  87. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 79–80.
  88. ^ Burstein 2004, p. 76.
  89. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 23, 73.
  90. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 77–84.
  91. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 23–25.
  92. ^ a b Roller 2010, p. 25.
  93. ^ a b Grant 1972, p. 18.
  94. ^ a b Burstein 2004, p. xx.
  95. ^ a b Roller 2010, pp. 25–26.
  96. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 13–14, 76.
  97. ^ a b Fletcher 2008, pp. 11–12, 80.
  98. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 13–14.
  99. ^ a b Fletcher 2008, p. 80.
  100. ^ a b Roller 2010, p. 26.
  101. ^ a b c Burstein 2004, p. 14.
  102. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 26–27.
  103. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 85.
  104. ^ Grant 1972, pp. 27–29.
  105. ^ Roller 2010, p. 27.
  106. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. xx, 14.
  107. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 84–85.
  108. ^ Raia & Sebesta 2017.
  109. ^ Sabino & Gross-Diaz 2016.
  110. ^ a b Grout 2017.
  111. ^ Pina Polo 2013, pp. 184–186.
  112. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 54, 174–175.
  113. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 234.
  114. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 174–175.
  115. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 53, 56.
  116. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 231.
  117. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. xx, 15–16.
  118. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 85–86.
  119. ^ Grant 1972, p. 30.
  120. ^ Roller 2010, p. 37.
  121. ^ Burstein 2004, pp. 48–49.
  122. ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 82, 129.
  123. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 88–93, 155.
  124. ^ a b Roller 2010, pp. 36–37.
  125. ^ a b Burstein 2004, p. 5.
  126. ^ a b Grant 1972, pp. 26–27.
  127. ^ Pfrommer 2001, p. 34.
  128. ^ Roller 2010, p. 53.
  129. ^ Burstein 2004, p. 16.
  130. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 91–92.

Cited in text

Online sources

  • Grout, James (1 April 2017), Was Cleopatra Beautiful?, Encyclopaedia Romana (University of Chicago), retrieved 29 March 2018.
  • Portrait féminin (mère de Cléopâtre ?) (in French), Musée Saint-Raymond, archived from the original on 20 September 2015, retrieved 29 July 2021
  • Sabino, Rachel; Gross-Diaz, Theresa (2016), Cat. 22 Tetradrachm Portraying Queen Cleopatra VII, Art Institute of Chicago,
    doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23475.22560
    , retrieved 6 March 2018.
  • Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn (September 2017), The World of State, College of New Rochelle, archived from the original on 6 March 2018, retrieved 29 March 2018.

Printed sources

Further reading

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