Early life of Joseph Stalin
The early life of
Childhood and early career
Childhood: 1878–1893
Stalin was born Ioseb Jughashvili on 18 December [O.S. 6 December] 1878[2][a] in the town of Gori, in what is today the country of Georgia. He was baptised on 29 December [O.S. 17 December] 1878[3] and christened Ioseb, and known by the diminutive "Soso"[4][b][5] His parents were Ekaterine (Keke) and Besarion Jughashvili (Beso). He was their third child; the first two, Mikheil and Giorgi, had died in infancy.[6]
Stalin's father, Besarion, was a shoemaker and owned a workshop that at one point employed as many as ten people,[7] but which slid into ruin as Stalin grew up.[8] Beso had specialised in producing traditional Georgian footwear and did not produce the European-style shoes that were becoming increasingly fashionable.[3] This, combined with the deaths of his previous two infant sons, precipitated his decline into alcoholism. The family found themselves living in poverty.[9] The couple had to leave their home and moved into nine different rented rooms over ten years.[10]
Besarion also became violent towards his family.
Although Keke was poor, she ensured that her son was well dressed when he went to school, likely through the financial support of family friends.[25] As a child, Stalin exhibited a number of idiosyncrasies; when happy, he would for instance jump around on one leg while clicking his fingers and yelling aloud.[26]
He excelled academically,
When Stalin was twelve, he was seriously injured after having been hit by a phaeton. He was hospitalised in Tiflis for several months, and sustained a lifelong disability to his left arm.[36] His father subsequently kidnapped him and enrolled him as an apprentice cobbler in the factory; this would be Stalin's only experience as a worker.[37] According to Stalin's biographer Robert Service, this was Stalin's "first experience with capitalism", and it was "raw, harsh and dispiriting".[38] Several priests from Gori retrieved the boy, after which Beso cut all contact with his wife and son.[39] In February 1892, Stalin's school teachers took him and the other pupils to witness the public hanging of several peasant bandits; Stalin and his friends sympathised with the condemned.[40] The event left a deep and lasting impression on him.[41] Stalin had decided that he wanted to become a local administrator so that he could deal with the problems of poverty that affected the population around Gori.[30] Despite his Christian upbringing, he had become an atheist after contemplating the problem of evil and learning about evolution through Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.[30]
Tiflis Seminary: 1893–1899
In July 1893, Stalin passed his exams and his teachers recommended him to the
Tiflis was a multi-ethnic city in which Georgians were a minority.
Over his years at the Seminary, Stalin lost interest in many of his studies and his grades began to drop.
He also read
In April 1899, Stalin left the seminary at the end of term and never returned,[74] although the school encouraged him to come back.[75] Through his years of attendance, he had received a classical education but had not qualified as a priest.[76] In later years, he sought to glamourize his leaving, claiming that he had been expelled from the seminary for his revolutionary activities.[75]
Early revolutionary activity: 1899–1902
Stalin next worked as a tutor for middle class children, but earned a meager living. In October 1899, Stalin began work as a meteorologist at the Tiflis Meteorological Observatory, where his school-friend Vano Ketskhoveli was already employed.[77] In this position, he worked during the night for a wage of twenty roubles a month.[78] The position entailed little work, and allowed him to read while on duty.[79] According to Robert Service, this was Stalin's "only period of sustained employment until after the October Revolution".[80] In the early weeks of 1900, Stalin was arrested and held in Metekhi Fortress] .[81] The official explanation given was that Beso had not paid his taxes and that Stalin was responsible for ensuring that they were paid,[82] although it may be that this was a "cryptic warning" from the police, who were aware of Stalin's Marxist revolutionary activities.[82] As soon as she learned of the arrest, Keke came to Tiflis, while some of Stalin's wealthier friends helped to pay the taxes and get him out of prison.[82]
Stalin had attracted a group of radical young men around him, giving classes in socialist theory in a flat on Sololaki Street.[83] Stalin was involved in organising a secret nocturnal mass meeting for May Day 1900, in which around 500 workers met in the hills outside the city.[84] There, Stalin gave his first major public speech, in which he called for strike action, something that the Mesame Dasi opposed.[85] Following his prompting, the workers at the railway depos and Adelkhanov's show factory went on strike.[85] By this point, the Tsarist secret police—the Okhrana—were aware of Stalin's activities within Tiflis' revolutionary milieu.[85] On the night of 21–22 March 1901, the Okhrana arrested a number of Marxist leaders in the city.[86] Stalin himself escaped arrest; he was traveling toward the observatory aboard a tram when he recognised plain-clothes police around the building. He decided to remain on the tram and get off at a later stop.[87] He did not return to the observatory, and henceforth lived off of donations given by political sympathisers and friends.[88]
Stalin next helped plan a large May Day demonstration for 1901, in which 3000 workers and leftists marched from Soldiers Bazaar to Yerevan Square.
The Committee then sent Stalin to the port city of Batumi, where he arrived in November 1901.[93] He identified an Okhrana infiltrator who was trying to gain access to the Batumi Marxist circles, and they were subsequently killed.[94] According to Montefiore, this was "probably [Stalin's] first murder".[94] In Batumi, Stalin moved around different flats, and it is likely that he had a relationship with Natasha Kirtava, whom he stayed with in Barskhana.[95] Stalin's rhetoric proved divisive among the city's Marxists.[96] His Batumi supporters became known as "Sosoists" while he was criticised by those regarded as "legals".[95] Some of the "legals" suspected that Stalin might be an agent provocateur sent by the Tsarist authorities to infiltrate and discredit the movement.[97]
In Batumi, Stalin gained employment at Rothschild refinery storehouse.[94] On 4 January 1902, the warehouse where he worked was set alight. The company's workers helped to put out the blaze, and insisted that they be paid a bonus for doing so. When the company refused, Stalin called a strike.[98] He encouraged revolutionary fervour among workers through a number of leaflets that he had printed in both Georgian and Armenian.[99] On 17 February, the Rothschild company agreed to the strikers' demands, which included a 30% pay rise.[99] On 23 February, they then dismissed 389 workers whom they regarded as troublemakers.[95] In response to this latter act, Stalin called for another strike.[95]
Many of the strike leaders were arrested by police.[100] Stalin helped to organise a public demonstration outside the prison which was joined by much of the town. The demonstrators stormed the prison in an attempt to free the imprisoned strike leaders, but were fired upon by Cossack troops. 13 protesters were killed and 54 wounded.[101] Stalin escaped with a wounded man.[97] This event, known as the Batumi Massacre, gained national attention.[97] Stalin then helped to organise a further demonstration for 12 March, the day on which the dead were buried. Around 7000 people took part in the march, which was heavily policed.[102] By this point, the Okhrana had become aware of Stalin's significant role in the demonstrations.[103] On 5 April, they arrested him at the house of one of his fellow revolutionaries.[104]
Imprisonment: 1902–1904
Stalin was initially interned in Batumi Prison.[105] He soon established himself as a powerful and respected figure within the prison, and retained contacts with the outside world.[106] On two occasions his mother visited him.[107] The state prosecutor subsequently ruled that there was insufficient evidence for Stalin being behind the Batumi disturbances, but he was instead indicted for his involvement in revolutionary activities in Tiflis.[108] In April 1903, Stalin led a prison protest against the visit of the Exarch of the Georgian Church.[108] As punishment, he was restricted to solitary confinement before being moved to the stricter Kutaisi Prison.[109] There, he gave lectures and encouraged inmates to read revolutionary literature.[110] He organised a protest to ensure that many of those imprisoned for political activities were housed together.[110]
On 9 July 1903, the Justice Minister recommended that Stalin be sentenced to three years of exile in eastern Siberia.[111] Stalin began his journey east in October, when he boarded a prison steamship at Batumi harbour and travelled via Novorossiysk and Rostov to Irkutsk.[112] He then travelled, by foot and coach, to Novaya Uda, arriving at the small settlement on 26 November.[113] In the town, Stalin lived in the two-room house of a local peasant, sleeping in the building's larder.[114] There were many other exiled leftist intellectuals in the town but Stalin eschewed them and preferred drinking alcohol with the petty criminals that had been exiled there.[115] While Stalin was in exile, a split had developed in the RSDLP, between the Bolsheviks who backed Lenin and the Mensheviks who backed Julius Martov.[116]
Stalin had several attempts to escape Novaya Uda. On the first attempt he made it to
At workers' meetings around Georgia, Stalin frequently debated against the Mensheviks.
The Revolution of 1905: 1905–1907
In January 1905, a massacre of protesters took place in St Petersburg that came to be known as
On 26 November 1905, the Georgian Bolsheviks elected Stalin and two others as their delegates to a Bolshevik conference due to be held in St. Petersburg.
In Stalin's absence, General Fyodor Griiazanov had crushed the Tiflis rebels.[148] Stalin's Battle Squads had to go into hiding and operate from the underground.[149] When Stalin returned to the city, he co-organised the assassination of Griiazanov with local Mensheviks.[150] Stalin also established a small group which he called the Bolshevik Expropriators Club, although it would more widely be known as the Group or Outfit.[151] Containing about ten members, three of whom were women,[152] the group procured arms, facilitated prison escapes, raided banks, and executed traitors.[151] They utilised protection rackets to further finance their activities.[153] During 1906, they carried out a series of bank robberies and hold-ups of stage coaches transporting money.[154] The money collected was then divided; much of it was sent to Lenin while the rest was used to finance Proletariatis Brdzola.[154] Stalin had continued to edit this newspaper, and also contributed articles to it using the pseudonyms "Koba" and "Besoshvili".[155]
In early April 1906, Stalin left Georgia to attend the
For some time, Stalin had been living in a central Tiflis apartment owned by the Alliluyev family.
By 1907—according to Robert Service—Stalin had established himself as "Georgia's leading Bolshevik".[169] Stalin travelled to the Fifth RSDLP Congress, held in London in May–June 1907, via St Petersburg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen.[170] While in Denmark, he made a detour to Berlin for a secret meeting with Lenin to discuss the robberies.[171] Stalin arrived in England and Harwich and took the train to London. There, he rented a room in Stepney, part of the city's East End that housed a substantial Jewish émigré community from the Russian Empire.[172] The congress took place at a church in Islington.[173] He remained in London for about three weeks, helping to nurse Tskhahaya after the latter fell ill.[174] He returned to Tiflis via Paris.[174]
Tiflis robbery: 1907–1909
After returning to Tiflis, Stalin organized the robbing of a large delivery of money to the Imperial Bank on 26 June 1907. His gang ambushed the armed convoy in Yerevan Square with gunfire and homemade bombs. Around 40 people were killed, but all of Jughashvili's gang managed to escape alive.[175] It is possible that Stalin hired a number of Socialist Revolutionaries to help him in the heist.[176] Around 250,000 roubles were stolen.[177] Service described it as "their greatest coup".[178] After the heist, Stalin took his wife and son away from Tiflis, settling in Baku.[179] There, Mensheviks confronted Stalin about the robbery but he denied any involvement.[180] These Mensheviks then voted to expel him from the RSDLP, but Stalin took no notice of them.[181]
In Baku, he moved his family into a seafront house just outside the city.[182] There, he edited two Bolshevik newspapers, Bakinsky Proletary and Gudok ("Whistle").[182] In August 1907, he travelled to Germany to attend the Seventh Congress of the Second International, which took place in Stuttgart.[183] He had returned to Baku in September, where the city was undergoing another spate of ethnic violence.[183] In the city, he helped to secure Bolshevik domination of the local RSDLP branch.[184] While devoting himself to revolutionary activity, Stalin had been neglecting his wife and child.[184] Kato fell ill with typhus, and so he took her back to Tiflis to be with her family.[185] There, she died in his arms on 22 November 1907.[185] Fearing that he would commit suicide, Stalin's friends confiscated his revolver.[186] The funeral took place on 25 November at Kulubanskaya Church before her body was buried at St Nina's Church in Kukia. During the funeral, Stalin threw himself onto the coffin in grief; he then had to escape the churchyard when he saw Okhrana members approaching.[187] He then left his son with his late wife's family in Tiflis.[188]
There, Stalin reassembled the Outfit and began publicly calling for more workers' strikes.[189] The Outfit continued to attack Black Hundreds, and raised finances by running protection rackets, counterfeiting currency, and carrying out robberies.[190] One of the robberies carried out in this period was of a ship, the Nicholas I, as it docked in Baku harbour.[191] Not long after, the Outfit carried out a raid on Baku's naval arsenal, during which several guards were killed.[192] They also kidnapped the children of several wealthy figures in order to extract ransom money.[193] He also co-operated with Hummat, the Muslim Bolshevik group, and was involved in assisting the arming of the Persian Revolution against Shah Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar.[194] At some point in 1908 he travelled to the Swiss city of Geneva to meet with Lenin; he also met the Russian Marxist Georgi Plekhanov, who exasperated him.[195]
On 25 March 1908, Stalin was arrested in a police raid and interned in Bailov Prison.
Launching Pravda: 1909–1912
By July 1909, Stalin was back in Baku.[208] There he began to express the need for the Bolsheviks to help boost their ailing fortunes by re-uniting with the Mensheviks.[209] He was increasingly frustrated with Lenin's factionalist attitudes.[209]
In October 1909, Stalin was arrested alongside several fellow Bolsheviks, but bribed the police officers into letting them escape.
Stalin was given permission to leave Solvychehodsk in June 1911.[217] From there, he was required to stay in Vologda for two months, where he spent much of his time in the local library.[218] There, he also had a relationship with the sixteen-year old Pelageya Onufrieva, who was already in an established relationship with the Bolshevik Peter Chizhikov.[219] He then proceeded to St Petersburg,[220] On 9 September 1911 he was again arrested, and held prisoner by the Okhrana for three weeks.[221] He was then exiled to Vologda for three years.[221] He was permitted to travel there on his own, but on the way hid from the authorities in St Petersburg for a while.[222] He had hoped to attend a Prague Conference that Lenin was organising but did not have the funds.[223] He then returned to Vologda, living in a house owned by a divorcee; it is likely that he had an affair with her.[222]
At the Prague Conference, the first Bolshevik Central Committee was established; Lenin and Grigory Zinoviev subsequently proposed co-opting the absent Stalin onto the group.[224] Lenin believed that Stalin would be useful in helping to secure support for the Bolsheviks from the Empire's minority ethnicities.[225] According to Conquest, Lenin recognised Stalin as "a ruthless and dependable enforcer of the Bolsheviks' will".[226] Stalin was then appointed to the Central Committee, and would remain on it for the rest of his life.[225] On 29 February, Stalin then took the train to St Petersburg via Moscow.[227] There, his assigned task was to convert the Bolshevik weekly newspaper, Zvezda ("Star") into a daily, Pravda ("Truth").[228] The new newspaper was launched in April 1912.[229] Stalin served as its editor-in-chief, but did so secretly.[229] He was assisted in the newspaper's production by Vyacheslav Scriabin.[230] In the city, he stayed in the flat of Tatiana Slavatinskaya, with whom he had an affair.[231]
The Outfit's last heist and the national question: 1912–1913
By May 1912, he was back in Tiflis.
Stalin returned to Tiflis,
In January 1913, Stalin travelled to Vienna, where he stayed with the wealthy Bolshevik sympathiser Alexander Troyanovsky.[246] He was in the city at the same time as Adolf Hitler and Josip Broz Tito, although he likely did not meet either of them at the time.[247] There, he devoted himself to examining the 'national question' of how the Bolsheviks should deal with the various national and ethnic minorities living in the Russian Empire.[248] Lenin had wanted to attract these minorities to the Bolshevik cause and to offer them the right of secession from the Russian state; at the same time, he hoped that they would not take up this offer and would want to remain part of a future Bolshevik-governed Russia.[249] Stalin had not been able to read German, but had been assisted in studying German texts by writers like Karl Kautsky and Otto Bauer by fellow Bolshevik Nikolai Bukharin.[250] He finished the article, which was titled Marxism and the National Question.[251] Lenin was very happy with it,[252] and in a private letter to Maxim Gorky he referred to Stalin as the "wonderful Georgian".[253] According to Montefiore, this was "Stalin's most famous work".[249]
The article was published in March 1913 under the pseudonym of "K. Stalin",[252] a name he had been using since 1912.[254] This name derived from the Russian language word for steel (stal),[254] and has been translated as "Man of Steel".[255] It was—according to Service—an "unmistakably Russian name".[254] Montefiore suggested that Stalin stuck with this name for the rest of his life because it had been used on the article which established his reputation within the Bolshevik movement.[256]
Final exile: 1913–1917
In February 1913, Stalin was back in St. Petersburg. At the time, the Okhrana were cracking down on the Bolsheviks by arresting leading members.[257] Stalin himself was arrested at a masquerade ball held by the Bolsheviks as a fundraiser at the Kalashnikov Exchange.[258]
Stalin was subsequently sentenced to four years exile in Turukhansk, a remote part of Siberia from which escape was particularly difficult.[259] In August, he arrived in the village of Monastyrskoe, although after four weeks was relocated to the hamlet of Kostino.[260] Stalin wrote letters to many people whom he knew, begging for them to send him money, in part to finance his escape attempt.[261] The authorities were concerned about any escape attempt and thus moved Stalin, along with Sverdlov, to the hamlet of Kureika, on the edge of the Arctic Circle, in March 1914.[262] There, the Bolshevik pair lived in the izba of the Taraseeva family, but frustrated one another as housemates.[263] In the hamlet, Stalin, circa age 35, had a relationship with Lidia Pereprygina, then 14-years-old, who subsequently fell pregnant with Stalin's child.[264] [265][266] Circa December 1914, Pereprygia gave birth to Stalin's child, although the infant died soon after.[267] In 1916, Lidia - now 15-years-old - was pregnant again. She gave birth to a son, named Alexander, in around April 1917. Stalin, then absent, later came to know of the child's existence but showed no apparent interest in him.[268] [269] The child would come to be known as Alexander Davydov, after Lidia's husband Yakov Davydov, who adopted Alexander.[270]
Near the end of summer 1914, the authorities moved Stalin to
While Stalin was in exile, Russia had entered the
According to the transcribed recollections of a former Okhrana officer, Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago, both Roman Malinovsky and Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent.[281][282]
Between the February and October revolutions
Stalin was in Achinsk when the February Revolution took place; uprisings broke out in Petrograd—as St Petersburg had been renamed—and the Tsar abdicated, to be replaced by a Provisional Government.[283] In March, Stalin travelled by train to Petrograd with Kamenev.[284] There, Stalin and Kamenev expressed the view that they were willing to temporarily back the new administration and accept the continuation of Russian involvement in the First World War so long as it was purely defensive.[285] This was in contrast to the view of Lenin—who was still in a self-imposed exile in Europe—that the Bolsheviks should oppose the Provisional Government and support an end to the war.[286]
On 25 March 1917 (12 March, Old Style) Stalin returned from exile in Siberia to Petrograd with L. B. Kamenev, and M. K. Muranov.[287][288] On 15 March, Stalin and Kamenev assumed control of Pravda, removing Vyacheslav Molotov from that position.[289] Stalin was also appointed as the Bolshevik representative to the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet.[290] Lenin then returned to Russia, with Stalin meeting him on his arrival at Petrograd's Finland Station.[291] In conversation, Lenin convinced Stalin to adopt his view on the Provisional Government and the ongoing war.[292] On 29 April, Stalin came third in the Bolshevik elections for the party's Central Committee; Lenin came first and Zinoviev came second.[293] This reflected his senior standing in the party at the time.[294] Over the coming months he spent much of his time working on Pravda, at the Petrograd Soviet, or assisting Lenin on the Central Committee.[294] He lived with Molotov in an apartment on Shirokaya Street where he and Molotov became friends.[295]
Stalin was involved in planning an armed demonstration of the Bolsheviks' supporters.
Lenin began calling for the Bolsheviks to seize power by toppling the Provisional Government in a coup. Stalin and Trotsky both endorsed Lenin's plan of action, but it was opposed by Kamenev and other Bolsheviks.[302] Lenin returned to Petrograd and at a meeting of the Central Committee on 10 October, he secured a majority in favour of a coup.[303] Kamenev nevertheless disagreed and wrote a letter warning against insurrection that Stalin agreed to publish in Rabochii Put. Trotsky censured Stalin for publishing it, with the latter responding with offering his resignation, which was not accepted.[304] On 24 October, police raided the Bolshevik newspaper offices, smashing machinery and presses; Stalin managed to salvage some of this equipment in order to continue his activities.[305] In the early hours of 25 October, Stalin joined Lenin in a Central Committee meeting in the Smolny Institute, from where the Bolshevik coup—the October Revolution—was being directed.[306] Armed Bolshevik militia had seized Petrograd's electric power station, main post office, state bank, telephone exchange, and several bridges.[307] A Bolshevik-controlled ship, the Aurora, sailed up to the Winter Palace, and opened fire, with the assembled delegates of the Provisional Government surrendering and being arrested by the Bolsheviks.[308]
Name and aliases
Stalin's birth-name in Georgian was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი).[309] An ethnic Georgian, he also was a subject of the Russian Empire, so he also had a Russified version of his name: Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили).
Stalin's surname (ჯუღაშვილი) is transliterated as Jughashvili according to the official romanization system of the Georgian government. An alternative transliteration is J̌uḡašvili using ISO standard 9984:1996. His name was Russified to "Джугашвили", which is in turn transliterated into English as Dzhugashvili and Djugashvili. Besarionis dze means "son of Besarion," and was Russified to Vissarionovich ("son of Vissarion", the Russian version of "Besarion").
There are several etymologies of the jugha (ჯუღა) root. In one version, the name derives from the village of Jugaani in
An article in the newspaper
The surname "Jughashvili" could possibly be of non-Georgian origin, since the various peoples of the
...When he has an execution it's a special treat,
...And the Ossetian chest swells. (Translation by A. S. Kline)
Like many outlaws, Stalin used many aliases throughout his revolutionary career, of which "Stalin" was only the last. During his education in
Allegations of being an Okhrana agent
Stalin's apparent ease in escaping from Tsarist persecution and very light sentences led to rumours that he was an
Russian historian
"Stalin knew that if he was exposed and removed from power, he would be shot like Malinovsky. But it was precisely in 1935 that certain documents compromising Stalin came into the hands of some prominent Party and NKVD officials.However, Stalin managed to forestall their plans, and they themselves were shot. Everything suggests that Stalin, the former Okhrana agent, remained a monarchist at heart: his autocratic predilections, his brutal contempt for revolutionaries, his ignorance of Marxist and socialist doctrine”.[322]
Medvedev however remained sceptical and argued that the Bolshevik had not provided any supporting evidence for his claim.[322]
Historian
Service thought there are "no serious grounds" for deeming Stalin an Okhrana agent.[326] Similarly, Robert Conquest was of the view that such claims "must be dismissed".[327] Stephen Kotkin wrote in his biography of Stalin that these claims simply aren't true and were never proven.[328]
Conversely, historian
Historian Roman Brackman also shared this view as he described Stalin as having “inundated Soviet archives with fake documents in order to hide the record of his Okhrana service and to glorify his past as a revolutionary”.[330]
According to the transcribed recollections of Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago, a former Okhrana officer and relative of the director of the Russian police department Stepan Petrovich Beletsky, both Malinovsky and Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent.[281][282][332]
KGB archivist Vasili Mitrokhin claimed that during a visit to a secret section of the Moscow Main Archives Directorate, he had been shown an Okhrana file on Stalin. He found the contents to have “been entirely removed”. He suspected that “whatever emptied the file, presumably on Stalin’s instructions, was later eliminated to preserve the dark secrets of its missing contents”.[333] Mitrokhin acknowledged that this was not conclusive proof but referenced supporting evidence from a report produced by an Okhrana agent which detailed accusations from Baku Bolsheviks that Stalin had been an agent of the secret police and embezzled party funds.[333]
Notes
- ^ Official Soviet biographies listed Stalin's birthdate as 21 December 1879. It is not clear why he falsified it. See Khlevniuk (2015), p. 11
- ^ Full Georgian name "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvilli" (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი); Russified to "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili" (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили)
References
- ISBN 978-0-297-86384-7.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 16.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 11–13.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ The couple's first child, Mikheil, was born on 14 February 1875, but died two months later. A second son, Giorgi, was born on 24 December 1876 but succumbed to measles and died in June 1877. See Service (2004), p. 16, Montefiore (2007), p. 22.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 24.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 32.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 10; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, p. 29.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Montefiore 2007, p. 31.
- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 32.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 17.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 31.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 31.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 32–33.
- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 27.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 3–4; Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, pp. 25–26.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 51.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 56.
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- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 18; Montefiore 2007, p. 58.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 38.
- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 58.
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- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 69.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 69.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 62.
- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 14; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, pp. 27–28; Montefiore 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 64.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 41.
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 65.
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 72.
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 73.
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- ^ Service 2004, p. 43.
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- ^ a b c Montefiore 2007, p. 77.
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- ^ Service 2004, p. 56.
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- ISBN 978-1-4000-4465-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-4465-8.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 129.
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 177.
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 189.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 190.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-669-10258-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-306-80167-9.
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- ^ "Biography of Joseph Stalin". Official website of the Stalin Museum (stalinmuseum.ge) (in Georgian). Archived from the original on 2017-06-10. Retrieved 2017-06-12.
- ^ Предки Сталина (in Russian)
- ^ Zubok 2007, p. xvii.
- ^ "G-GG332 YTree". YFull. Retrieved 2023-02-15.
- ^ Helen Rappaport, Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion, p. 71
- ^ "ИМЯ СТАЛИН" Archived 2009-04-14 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian).
- ^ Service 2004, p. 28
- ^ Radzinsky 1997, pp. 37
- ^ Google Translate
- ^ a b Radzinsky 1997, pp. 79–81, sub ch. "Koba: The Riddle of Riddles"
- ^ a b Агент Охранки или провокатор по призванию? by Sergey Zemlyanoy Nezavisimaya Gazeta 3 July 2002 (in Russian)
- ^ Тайные грабежи Сталина крышевал Ленин Archived 2009-02-23 at the Wayback Machine Komsomolskaya Pravda 13 November 2008
- ^ СТАЛИН - АГЕНТ ОХРАНКИ: ЗА И ПРОТИВ Archived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine by A. Ostrovsky (in Russian)
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-215842-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7146-5050-0.[page needed]
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 188, ch. 25
- ^ Smith, Edward Ellis.The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967. pg 77.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 72.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 39.
- ^ Kotkin, Stephen. Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878-1928.
- ISBN 978-1-135-76084-7.
- ISBN 978-1-135-75840-0.
- ISBN 978-1-000-37135-2.
- ISBN 978-1-135-75840-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-14-196646-5.
Bibliography
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- Encyclopædia Britannica (2022). "Joseph Stalin: premier of Soviet Union". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2022.
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