Earthquake engineering
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Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in a major earthquake. A
Definition
Earthquake engineering is a scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:
- Foresee the potential consequences of strong urban areasand civil infrastructure.
- Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes.[3]
Seismic loading
Seismic loading means application of an earthquake-generated excitation on a structure (or geo-structure). It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground,[5] with adjacent structures,[6] or with gravity waves from tsunami. The loading that is expected at a given location on the Earth's surface is estimated by engineering seismology. It is related to the seismic hazard of the location.
Seismic performance
Earthquake or seismic performance defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions, such as its safety and serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is normally considered safe if it does not endanger the lives and well-being of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.
Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage but without globally collapsing.[7] On the other hand, it should remain operational for more frequent, but less severe seismic events.
Seismic performance assessment
Engineers need to know the quantified level of the actual or anticipated seismic performance associated with the direct damage to an individual building subject to a specified ground shaking. Such an assessment may be performed either experimentally or analytically.
Experimental assessment
Experimental evaluations are expensive tests that are typically done by placing a (scaled) model of the structure on a shake-table that simulates the earth shaking and observing its behavior.[8] Such kinds of experiments were first performed more than a century ago.[9] Only recently has it become possible to perform 1:1 scale testing on full structures.
Due to the costly nature of such tests, they tend to be used mainly for understanding the seismic behavior of structures, validating models and verifying analysis methods. Thus, once properly validated, computational models and numerical procedures tend to carry the major burden for the seismic performance assessment of structures.
Analytical/Numerical assessment
Seismic performance assessment or
In general, seismic structural analysis is based on the methods of structural dynamics.[10] For decades, the most prominent instrument of seismic analysis has been the earthquake response spectrum method which also contributed to the proposed building code's concept of today.[11]
However, such methods are good only for linear elastic systems, being largely unable to model the structural behavior when damage (i.e.,
Basically, numerical analysis is conducted in order to evaluate the seismic performance of buildings. Performance evaluations are generally carried out by using nonlinear static pushover analysis or nonlinear time-history analysis. In such analyses, it is essential to achieve accurate non-linear modeling of structural components such as beams, columns, beam-column joints, shear walls etc. Thus, experimental results play an important role in determining the modeling parameters of individual components, especially those that are subject to significant non-linear deformations. The individual components are then assembled to create a full non-linear model of the structure. Thus created models are analyzed to evaluate the performance of buildings.
The capabilities of the structural analysis software are a major consideration in the above process as they restrict the possible component models, the analysis methods available and, most importantly, the numerical robustness. The latter becomes a major consideration for structures that venture into the non-linear range and approach global or local collapse as the numerical solution becomes increasingly unstable and thus difficult to reach. There are several commercially available Finite Element Analysis software's such as CSI-SAP2000 and CSI-PERFORM-3D, MTR/SASSI, Scia Engineer-ECtools,
Research for earthquake engineering
Research for earthquake engineering means both field and analytical investigation or experimentation intended for discovery and scientific explanation of earthquake engineering related facts, revision of conventional concepts in the light of new findings, and practical application of the developed theories.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the main United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all fields of earthquake engineering. In particular, it focuses on experimental, analytical and computational research on design and performance enhancement of structural systems.
The
A definitive list of earthquake engineering research related shaking tables around the world may be found in Experimental Facilities for Earthquake Engineering Simulation Worldwide.[14] The most prominent of them is now E-Defense Shake Table in Japan.[15]
Major U.S. research programs
NSF also supports the George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation
The NSF Hazard Mitigation and Structural Engineering program (HMSE) supports research on new technologies for improving the behaviour and response of structural systems subject to earthquake hazards; fundamental research on safety and reliability of constructed systems; innovative developments in
(NEES) that advances knowledge discovery and innovation for
The NEES network features 14 geographically-distributed, shared-use laboratories that support several types of experimental work:
The equipment sites (labs) and a central data repository are connected to the global earthquake engineering community via the NEEShub website. The NEES website is powered by HUBzero software developed at Purdue University for nanoHUB specifically to help the scientific community share resources and collaborate. The cyberinfrastructure, connected via Internet2, provides interactive simulation tools, a simulation tool development area, a curated central data repository, animated presentations, user support, telepresence, mechanism for uploading and sharing resources, and statistics about users and usage patterns.
This cyberinfrastructure allows researchers to: securely store, organize and share data within a standardized framework in a central location; remotely observe and participate in experiments through the use of synchronized real-time data and video; collaborate with colleagues to facilitate the planning, performance, analysis, and publication of research experiments; and conduct computational and hybrid simulations that may combine the results of multiple distributed experiments and link physical experiments with computer simulations to enable the investigation of overall system performance.
These resources jointly provide the means for collaboration and discovery to improve the seismic design and performance of civil and mechanical infrastructure systems.
Earthquake simulation
The very first earthquake simulations were performed by statically applying some horizontal inertia forces based on
Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical, like shake-table testing, or virtual ones. In both cases, to verify a structure's expected seismic performance, some researchers prefer to deal with so called "real time-histories" though the last cannot be "real" for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building code or by some particular research requirements. Therefore, there is a strong incentive to engage an earthquake simulation which is the seismic input that possesses only essential features of a real event.
Sometimes earthquake simulation is understood as a re-creation of local effects of a strong earth shaking.
Structure simulation
Theoretical or experimental evaluation of anticipated seismic performance mostly requires a structure simulation which is based on the concept of structural likeness or similarity.
In general, a building model is said to have similarity with the real object if the two share geometric similarity, kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity. The most vivid and effective type of similarity is the kinematic one. Kinematic similarity exists when the paths and velocities of moving particles of a model and its prototype are similar.
The ultimate level of kinematic similarity is kinematic equivalence when, in the case of earthquake engineering, time-histories of each story lateral displacements of the model and its prototype would be the same.
Seismic vibration control
Seismic vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and
- passive control devices have no feedback capability between them, structural elements and the ground;
- active control devices incorporate real-time recording instrumentation on the ground integrated with earthquake input processing equipment and actuators within the structure;
- hybrid control devices have combined features of active and passive control systems.[22]
When ground
After the seismic waves enter a superstructure, there are a number of ways to control them in order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for instance:
- to dissipate the wave energy inside a superstructure with properly engineered dampers;
- to disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies;
- to mass dampers.[23]
Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned (passive), as AMD for the active, and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers, have been studied and installed in
However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into the
For this, some pads are inserted into or under all major load-carrying elements in the base of the building which should substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on a shaking ground.
The first evidence of earthquake protection by using the principle of base isolation was discovered in Pasargadae, a city in ancient Persia, now Iran, and dates back to the 6th century BCE. Below, there are some samples of seismic vibration control technologies of today.
Dry-stone walls in Peru
The stones of the dry-stone walls built by the Incas could move slightly and resettle without the walls collapsing, a passive
Tuned mass damper
Typically the
The Taipei 101 skyscraper needs to withstand typhoon winds and earthquake tremors common in this area of Asia/Pacific. For this purpose, a steel pendulum weighing 660 metric tonnes that serves as a tuned mass damper was designed and installed atop the structure. Suspended from the 92nd to the 88th floor, the pendulum sways to decrease resonant amplifications of lateral displacements in the building caused by earthquakes and strong gusts.
Hysteretic dampers
A hysteretic damper is intended to provide better and more reliable seismic performance than that of a conventional structure by increasing the dissipation of seismic input energy.[27] There are five major groups of hysteretic dampers used for the purpose, namely:
- Fluid viscous dampers (FVDs)
Viscous Dampers have the benefit of being a supplemental damping system. They have an oval hysteretic loop and the damping is velocity dependent. While some minor maintenance is potentially required, viscous dampers generally do not need to be replaced after an earthquake. While more expensive than other damping technologies they can be used for both seismic and wind loads and are the most commonly used hysteretic damper.[28]
- Friction dampers (FDs)
Friction dampers tend to be available in two major types, linear and rotational and dissipate energy by heat. The damper operates on the principle of a
- Metallic yielding dampers (MYDs)
Metallic yielding dampers, as the name implies, yield in order to absorb the earthquake's energy. This type of damper absorbs a large amount of energy however they must be replaced after an earthquake and may prevent the building from settling back to its original position.
- Viscoelastic dampers (VEDs)
Viscoelastic dampers are useful in that they can be used for both wind and seismic applications, they are usually limited to small displacements. There is some concern as to the reliability of the technology as some brands have been banned from use in buildings in the United States.
- Straddling pendulum dampers (swing)
Base isolation
Base isolation seeks to prevent the kinetic energy of the earthquake from being transferred into elastic energy in the building. These technologies do so by isolating the structure from the ground, thus enabling them to move somewhat independently. The degree to which the energy is transferred into the structure and how the energy is dissipated will vary depending on the technology used.
- Lead rubber bearing
Lead rubber bearing or LRB is a type of
Heavy damping mechanism incorporated in
- Springs-with-damper base isolator
Springs-with-damper base isolator installed under a three-story town-house,
One of two three-story town-houses like this, which was well instrumented for recording of both vertical and horizontal
- Simple roller bearing
Simple roller bearing is a
This metallic bearing support may be adapted, with certain precautions, as a seismic isolator to skyscrapers and buildings on soft ground. Recently, it has been employed under the name of
- Friction pendulum bearing
Friction pendulum bearing (FPB) is another name of friction pendulum system (FPS). It is based on three pillars:[32]
- articulated friction slider;
- spherical concave sliding surface;
- enclosing cylinder for lateral displacement restraint.
Snapshot with the link to video clip of a shake-table testing of FPB system supporting a rigid building model is presented at the right.
Seismic design
Seismic design is based on authorized engineering procedures, principles and criteria meant to
The price of poor seismic design may be enormous. Nevertheless, seismic design has always been a
To practice
- Seismic Data and Seismic Design Criteria
- Seismic Characteristics of Engineered Systems
- Seismic Forces
- Seismic Analysis Procedures
- Seismic Detailing and Construction Quality Control
To build up complex structural systems,[36] seismic design largely uses the same relatively small number of basic structural elements (to say nothing of vibration control devices) as any non-seismic design project.
Normally, according to building codes, structures are designed to "withstand" the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings.
Seismic design is carried out by understanding the possible
Seismic design requirements
Seismic design requirements depend on the type of the structure, locality of the project and its authorities which stipulate applicable seismic design codes and criteria.[7] For instance, California Department of Transportation's requirements called The Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) and aimed at the design of new bridges in California[38] incorporate an innovative seismic performance-based approach.
The most significant feature in the SDC design philosophy is a shift from a force-based assessment of seismic demand to a displacement-based assessment of demand and capacity. Thus, the newly adopted displacement approach is based on comparing the elastic displacement demand to the inelastic displacement capacity of the primary structural components while ensuring a minimum level of inelastic capacity at all potential plastic hinge locations.
In addition to the designed structure itself, seismic design requirements may include a ground stabilization underneath the structure: sometimes, heavily shaken ground breaks up which leads to collapse of the structure sitting upon it.[40] The following topics should be of primary concerns: liquefaction; dynamic lateral earth pressures on retaining walls; seismic slope stability; earthquake-induced settlement.[41]
Failure modes
Failure mode is the manner by which an earthquake induced failure is observed. It, generally, describes the way the failure occurs. Though costly and time consuming, learning from each real earthquake failure remains a routine recipe for advancement in seismic design methods. Below, some typical modes of earthquake-generated failures are presented.
The lack of reinforcement coupled with poor mortar and inadequate roof-to-wall ties can result in substantial damage to an unreinforced masonry building. Severely cracked or leaning walls are some of the most common earthquake damage. Also hazardous is the damage that may occur between the walls and roof or floor diaphragms. Separation between the framing and the walls can jeopardize the vertical support of roof and floor systems.
Landslide rock fall. A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, including rock falls. Typically, the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur though in this case there was another contributing factor which affected the original slope stability: the landslide required an earthquake trigger before being released.
Pounding against adjacent building. This is a photograph of the collapsed five-story tower, St. Joseph's Seminary,
At
- Improper foothill.
- Poor detailing of the reinforcement (lack of concrete confinement in the columns and at the beam-column joints, inadequate splice length).
- Seismically weak soft story at the first floor.
- Long dead load.
Sliding off foundations effect of a relatively rigid residential building structure during 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake. The magnitude 5.9 earthquake pounded the Garvey West Apartment building in Monterey Park, California and shifted its superstructure about 10 inches to the east on its foundation.
If a superstructure is not mounted on a
Retaining wall failure at
Ground shaking triggered soil liquefaction in a subsurface layer of sand, producing differential lateral and vertical movement in an overlying carapace of unliquefied sand and silt. This mode of ground failure, termed lateral spreading, is a principal cause of liquefaction-related earthquake damage.[44]
Severely damaged building of Agriculture Development Bank of China after
Twofold tsunami impact:
Earthquake-resistant construction
Earthquake construction means implementation of seismic design to enable building and non-building structures to live through the anticipated earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with the applicable building codes.
Design and construction are intimately related. To achieve a good workmanship, detailing of the members and their connections should be as simple as possible. As any construction in general, earthquake construction is a process that consists of the building, retrofitting or assembling of infrastructure given the construction materials available.[48]
The destabilizing action of an earthquake on constructions may be direct (seismic motion of the ground) or indirect (earthquake-induced landslides, soil liquefaction and waves of tsunami).
A structure might have all the appearances of stability, yet offer nothing but danger when an earthquake occurs.
To minimize possible
Each
Adobe structures
Around thirty percent of the world's population lives or works in earth-made construction.
Adobe buildings are considered very vulnerable at strong quakes.[51] However, multiple ways of seismic strengthening of new and existing adobe buildings are available.[52]
Key factors for the improved seismic performance of adobe construction are:
- Quality of construction.
- Compact, box-type layout.
- Seismic reinforcement.[53]
Limestone and sandstone structures
Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world are made of limestone. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone and sandstone masonry. They are the long-lasting materials but their rather heavy weight is not beneficial for adequate seismic performance.
Application of modern technology to seismic retrofitting can enhance the survivability of unreinforced masonry structures. As an example, from 1973 to 1989, the Salt Lake City and County Building in Utah was exhaustively renovated and repaired with an emphasis on preserving historical accuracy in appearance. This was done in concert with a seismic upgrade that placed the weak sandstone structure on base isolation foundation to better protect it from earthquake damage.
Timber frame structures
Timber framing dates back thousands of years, and has been used in many parts of the world during various periods such as ancient Japan, Europe and medieval England in localities where timber was in good supply and building stone and the skills to work it were not.
The use of timber framing in buildings provides their complete skeletal framing which offers some structural benefits as the timber frame, if properly engineered, lends itself to better seismic survivability.[54]
Light-frame structures
Reinforced masonry structures
A construction system where
To achieve a
The devastating 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed that masonry is prone to earthquake damage, which led to the California State Code making masonry reinforcement mandatory across California.
Reinforced concrete structures
, floors or bridges.To prevent catastrophic collapse in response earth shaking (in the interest of life safety), a traditional reinforced concrete frame should have
Prestressed structures
Prestressed structure is the one whose overall integrity, stability and security depend, primarily, on a prestressing. Prestressing means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.[58]
There are the following basic types of prestressing:
- Pre-compression (mostly, with the own weight of a structure)
- Pretensioning with high-strength embedded tendons
- Post-tensioning with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons
Today, the concept of prestressed structure is widely engaged in design of buildings, underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and offshore facilities, nuclear reactor vessels, and numerous kinds of bridge systems.[59]
A beneficial idea of prestressing was, apparently, familiar to the ancient Roman architects; look, e.g., at the tall attic wall of Colosseum working as a stabilizing device for the wall piers beneath.
Steel structures
Steel structures are considered mostly earthquake resistant but some failures have occurred. A great number of welded
For
As a consequence of
Prediction of earthquake losses
Earthquake loss estimation is usually defined as a Damage Ratio (DR) which is a ratio of the earthquake damage repair cost to the
Earthquake loss estimations are also referred to as Seismic Risk Assessments. The risk assessment process generally involves determining the probability of various ground motions coupled with the vulnerability or damage of the building under those ground motions. The results are defined as a percent of building replacement value.[65]
See also
- Anchor plate
- Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
- Earthquake resistant structures
- Emergency management
- Facade
- Geotechnical engineering
- International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology
- List of international earthquake acceleration coefficients
- National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering
- Probabilistic risk assessment
- Seismic intensity scales
- Seismic magnitude scales
- Seismic response of landfill
- Seismic retrofit
- Seismic site response
- Soil structure interaction
- Spectral acceleration
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External links
- Earthquake engineering at Curlie
- Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
- Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (CUREE)
- NHERI: A natural hazards engineering research infrastructure
- Earthquakes and Earthquake Engineering in The Library of Congress
- Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Archived 2019-12-18 at the Wayback Machine