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Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various
Indian philosophy
Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the
Later developments include the development of
Orthodox schools
The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox –
There are six major schools of orthodox Indian
Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana-sastras.[44][45]
In
Sāmkhya and Yoga
Sāmkhya is a dualist philosophical tradition based on the Samkhyakarika (c. 320–540 CE),[46] while the Yoga school was a closely related tradition emphasizing meditation and liberation whose major text is the Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE).[47] Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can, however, be traced back to the period of the early Upanishads.[48] One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for the existence of a God, while most Sāmkhya thinkers criticized this idea.[49]
Sāmkhya epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge; pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (word/testimony of reliable sources).[50] The school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution of consciousness and matter. Sāmkhya sources argue that the universe consists of two realities, puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter).
As shown by the
Nyāya
The a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period.
Vaiśeṣika
Vaiśeṣika is a naturalist school of atomism, which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference.[55] This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called "small" (aṇu). Whatever we experience is a composite of these atoms.[56]
Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they called padārthas (literally: 'the meaning of a word') which included six categories; dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity) and samavāya (inherence). Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.[57]
Mīmāṃsā
Mīmāṃsā is a school of ritual orthopraxy and is known for its hermeneutical study and interpretation of the Vedas.[58] For this tradition, the study of dharma as ritual and social duty was paramount. They also held that the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions and mantras in rituals are prescriptive actions of primary importance.[58] Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.[59] They primarily held that the purpose of language was to correctly prescribe proper actions, rituals, and correct dharma (duty or virtue).[60] Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.[61]
A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the
Vedānta
The central concern for these schools is the nature of and the relationship between
The sub-traditions of
Other
While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools that are sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:[42]
- (≈2nd century CE).
- Śaiva Siddhānta, a school of dualistic Shaivism which was strongly influenced by Samkhya.
- Pratyabhijña (recognition) school of Utpaladeva (10th century) and Abhinavagupta (975–1025 CE), a form of non-dual Shaiva tantra.
- Raseśvara, the mercurial school
- Pāṇini Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)
Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools
The nāstika or heterodox schools are associated with the non-Vedic
Jain philosophy
The contribution of the Jains in the development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like
Cārvāka
Cārvāka or Lokāyata was an atheistic philosophy of scepticism and materialism, who rejected the Vedas and all associated supernatural doctrines.[75] Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed the Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology.[76] They declared the Vedas to be incoherent rhapsodies invented by humans whose only usefulness was to provide a livelihood to priests.[77]
Likewise, they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept of liberation, reincarnation, and accumulation of merit or demerit through karma.[78] They believed the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools".[76] Cārvāka epistemology holds perception as the primary source of knowledge while rejecting inference which can be invalid.[79] The primary texts of Cārvāka, like the Barhaspatya sutras (c. 600 BCE) have been lost.[80]
Ājīvika
Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism.[81]
Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Hindu Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[82] The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.[82][83] Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.[84] Ājīvikas were atheists[85] and rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.[86][87]
Ajñana
Ajñana was a Śramaṇa school of radical Indian skepticism and a rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions;[88] and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were seen as sophists who specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa (fl. c. 800), the author of the skeptical work entitled Tattvopaplavasiṃha ("The Lion that Devours All Categories"/"The Upsetting of All Principles"), has been seen as an important Ajñana philosopher.[89]
Buddhist philosophies
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed '
After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the
Buddhist modernism
The modern period saw the rise of
Buddhist modernism includes various movements like Humanistic Buddhism, Secular Buddhism, the Vipassana movement, and Engaged Buddhism. Chinese humanistic Buddhism or "Buddhism for Human Life" (Chinese: 人生佛教; pinyin: rénshēng fójiào) which was to be free of supernatural beliefs has also been an influential form of modern Buddhism in Asia.[97]
Sikh philosophy
Modern Indian philosophy
In response to
The political thought of Hindu nationalism is also another important current in modern Indian thought. The work of Mahatma Gandhi, Deendayal Upadhyaya, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya, and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan has had a large impact on modern Indian philosophy.[105]
Jainism also had its modern interpreters and defenders, such as Virchand Gandhi, Champat Rai Jain, and Shrimad Rajchandra (well known as a spiritual guide of Mahatma Gandhi).
East Asian philosophies
Chinese
East Asian philosophical thought began in
Confucianism
Confucianism focuses on humanistic values like familial and social harmony,
Confucianism was a major ideology of the imperial state during the
Traditionally, East Asian cultures and countries in the
Legalism
Legalism (pinyin: Fǎjiā; school of "methods" or "standards")[112] was a philosophical tradition which focused on laws, realpolitik, and bureaucratic management.[113] Largely ignoring morality or idealized views of how society should be, they focused on the pragmatic government through the power of the autocrat and state. Their goal was to achieve increased order, security, and stability.[114] They were initially influenced by Mohist ideas.[115] A key figure of this school was administrator and political philosopher Shen Buhai (c. 400–337 BCE).[116] Another central figure, Shang Yang (390–338 BCE), was a leading statesman and reformer who transformed the Qin state into the dominant power that conquered the rest of China in 221 BCE.[117] Shen's successor Han Fei (c. 280–233 BCE) synthesized the thought of the other Legalists in his eponymous text, the Han Feizi, one of the most influential Legalist texts which was used by successive Chinese statesmen and rulers as a guide for statesmanship and bureaucratic organization of the imperial state.[118][119]
Mohism
Mohism is best known for the idea of "impartial care" (Chinese: 兼愛; pinyin: jiān ài; literally: "inclusive love/care").[120] According to Master Mo, persons should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to them. Mo also advocated impartial meritocracy in government which should be based on talent, not blood relations. Mozi was against Confucian ritualism, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming, fortification, and statecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize the general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the Will of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism.
Mohism was also associated with and influenced by a separate philosophical school known as the School of Names (Míngjiā; also known as 'Logicians'), that focused on the philosophy of language, definition, and logic.
Taoism
Taoism (or Daoism) is a term for various philosophies and religious systems that emphasize harmony with the
Early forms of Taoism developed in the 4th century BCE, influenced by the cosmological theories of the
The
Other schools rose to prominence throughout Chinese history, such as the Shangqing school during the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Lingbao school during the Song dynasty (960–1279) and the Quanzhen School which develop during the 13th–14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty.[128] The later Taoist traditions were also influenced by Chinese Buddhism.[129]
Modern East Asian philosophy
Chinese
Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism (Jingxue), Neo-Confucianism (Lixue), Buddhism, Daoism, and Xixue ("Western Learning" which arose during the late Ming dynasty).[130]
The
The traditionalists meanwhile sought to revive and fortify traditional Chinese philosophical schools. Chinese Buddhist thought was promoted by thinkers like Yang Rensan and Ou-Yang Jingwu
Japanese
Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy. Japan's rapid modernization was partly aided by the early study of western science (known as Rangaku) during the Edo period (1603–1868). Another intellectual movement during the Edo period was Kokugaku (national study), which sought to focus on the study of ancient Japanese thought, classic texts, and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist cultures.[134] A key figure of this movement is Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), who argued that the essence of classic Japanese literature and culture was a sense called mono no aware ("sorrow at evanescence").[135]
In the
Japanese Buddhist philosophy was influenced by the work of the
North Korean
Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official political
Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy
Modern
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2020) |
In the modern era, there have been many attempts to integrate Western and Eastern philosophical traditions.
Recent attempts to incorporate Western philosophy into Eastern thought include the
The 20th-century
Following the
The influence of
Swiss psychologist Carl Jung was deeply influenced by the I Ching (Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese text that dates back to the Bronze Age Shang dynasty (c. 1700–1050 BCE). It uses a system of Yin and Yang, which it places into hexagrams for the purposes of divination. Carl Jung's idea of synchronicity moves towards an Oriental view of causality, as he states in the foreword to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching.[141] He explains that this Chinese view of the world is based not on science as the West knows it, but on chance.
Criticism
According to the British philosopher Victoria S. Harrison, the category of "Eastern philosophy", and similarly "Asian philosophy" and "Oriental philosophy" is a product of 19th-century Western scholarship and did not exist in East Asia or India. This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root, but various autonomous traditions that have come into contact with each other over time.[142]
Some
See also
Notes
- ^ Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" ([10]) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in [11]
- ^ Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320–467 CE)."
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External links
- Jim Fieser: Classical Eastern Philosophy
- Articles and commentaries on a wide range of topics related to practical Eastern Philosophy at atmajyoti.org
- Eastern Philosophy Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on Kheper website
- Littlejohn, Ronnie. "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of Topics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.