East Africa

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For the entity known as (British) East Africa, see East Africa Protectorate. For the region of the African Union, see Regions of the African Union.

East Africa
Map of countries included in East Africa according to the UN geoscheme
Countries
Territories
Time zonesUTC+02:00
UTC+03:00
UTC+04:00

East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the

sovereign states and 4 territories.[1]

East Africa is acknowledged as the cradle of early modern humans, who first emerged around 200,000 years ago before spreading globally.[2]

Definitions

In a narrow sense, particularly in English-speaking contexts, East Africa refers to the area comprising

British East Africa Protectorate and German East Africa.[3] In broader linguistic and geographic interpretations, the term encompasses additional countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.[4]

The East African Community, an economic and political bloc, currently includes the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania.[5] Notably, the African Great Lakes region overlaps significantly with these countries.

Further extending East Africa's definition, the Horn of Africa—comprising Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia—stands out as a distinct geopolitical entity within East Africa.[6][7] Adjacent to these mainland territories are island nations and territories such as Socotra, Comoros, Mauritius, Seychelles, Réunion, Mayotte, and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean.[4]

Regions including portions of Mozambique and Madagascar, often aligned with Southern Africa, share significant historical and cultural connections with East Africa, particularly through the Indian Ocean's maritime networks.[8][9] Sudan is also sometimes included due in part because it is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) free trade area. [10]

History

Main article: History of East Africa
Further information:
List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa § East Africa

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric East Africa
See also: Recent African origin of modern humans

According to the theory of the

anatomically modern humans first appeared.[2] There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory.[11] Some researchers have suggested that North Africa was the region of Africa from which modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.[12]

According to both genetic and fossil evidence, it has been posited that

Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens. Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory.[15][16][17][18]

The Bab-el-Mandeb crossing in the Red Sea
: now some 12 miles (19 km) wide, narrower in prehistory.

In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in a larger area of Africa than previously thought.[19]

East Africa is one of the earliest regions where

Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors associated with Homo sapiens, including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens.[20][21][22]

In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260

modern humans/H. sapiens, representative of the earliest Homo sapiens, and suggested that Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa.[23][24]

The migration route of the "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa through Bab el Mandeb. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts.

Some of the earliest

Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the Koobi Fora in Kenya and Olduvai Gorge
in Tanzania.

The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by Khoisan hunter-gatherers, whereas in the Ethiopian Highlands the donkey and such crop plants as teff allowed the beginning of agriculture around 7,000 BCE.[25] Lowland barriers and diseases carried by the tsetse fly, however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of cattle, sheep and crops such as millet. Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in the middle Nile basin.

Ancient history

Main article: Horn of Africa § History

Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt.[26] The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.[27] The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.

The

Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom
.

Bantu expansion

Main article: Bantu expansion § Expansion
Further information: Bantu peoples § History

Between 2500 and 3000 years ago,

African Traditional Religion
adherents.

Early Iron Age findings in East and Southern Africa

Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later

Nilotic communities.[citation needed] The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas.[30]

After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa, Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of Cushitic origin.[citation needed] As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed the custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area.[31]

On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with

loan-words as a consequence of these interactions.[33]
. Its important to note that Kiswahili grammar and structure are purely African and Bantu even if its vocabulary has non African influence in the same way English remains a Germanic language regardless of its vocabulary being heavily influenced by Latin and French among other languages

The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias[34] referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE,[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42] ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania.[43][44] These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration.[45]

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the

Karagwe[46]
kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.

Modern history

Arab and Portuguese eras

Main articles:
Portuguese East Africa and History of Oman

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique by sea. Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in 1498. Da Gama's voyage was successful in reaching India, which permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea. This in turn challenged the older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice trade routes which utilized the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and camel caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean.[47]

The

Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly.[48] Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now southern Tanzania
.

In March 1505, having received from Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in India, he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (Kilwa), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors of Mombasa. However, the town was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the Tana River), Barawa, Angoche, Pate and other coastal towns until the western Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of Angediva, near Goa, and Cannanore, the Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy.

Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the

Arab
incursions into the Great Lakes region during the 17th century.

The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region. By this time, the

Portuguese East Africa
(Mozambique) as sole rulers until the 1975 independence of Mozambique.

Omani Arab

Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region.[48]

Arab governance of all the major ports along the Swahili coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a

Pemba until the Zanzibar Revolution
in 1964. However, the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s.

Period of European imperialism

Map of British East Africa in 1911

Between the 19th and 20th century, East Africa became a theatre of competition between the major imperialistic European nations of the time. The three main colors of the African country were beige, red, and blue. The red stood for the English, blue stood for the French, and the beige stood for Germany during the period of colonialism. During the period of the Scramble for Africa, almost every country in the larger region to varying degrees became part of a European colonial empire.

Porto Amélia, Lourenço Marques and Entebbe.[49]

The

Tanganyika, an important island hub of the spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended archipelago of Seychelles and the rich farming island of Mauritius, previously under the French sovereignty
.

The

British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian protectorate (Italian Somaliland
).

Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control (

Asseb from a local sultan in Eritrea
, the Italians colonized all of Eritrea.

In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the

East African Campaign. The French also staked out an East African outpost on the route to French Indochina. Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of Djibouti became French Somaliland
in 1897.

Post-colonial period

Further information: Decolonisation of Africa, Postcolonial Africa § East Africa, and Neocolonialism
See also: Status of forces agreement

Conflicts

Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries have been riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts:

Northern East Africa
(Horn of Africa)
Northern East Africa
(Sudan)
South Sudan
Southern East Africa (Southeast Africa)
Outside Southeast Africa with Southeast African participation

2007 election riots
.

Tanzania has known stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Tanzania and Uganda fought the Uganda–Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to the removal of Uganda's despotic leader Idi Amin.

Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably, they experienced the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1993 Burundi genocide and the subsequent Burundian Civil War. Rwanda and Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region.

Djibouti, as well as the Puntland and Somaliland regions of Somalia, have seen relative stability.[52][53][54]

Nuba Hills both remained sources of tension between Juba and Khartoum as of 2011.[55]

Geography

Image of the region between Lake Victoria (on the right) and Lakes Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika (from north to south) showing dense vegetation (bright green) and fires (red).

Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "

big five": the elephant, buffalo, lion, black rhinoceros,[56] and leopard
, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly those of the rhino and elephant.

The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift, East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. It also includes the world's second largest freshwater lake, Lake Victoria, and the world's second deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika.

The unique geography and apparent suitability for

farming made East Africa a target for European exploration, exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological, historical and economical importance.[57][58]

Countries, capitals and largest cities

Main article: List of cities in East Africa

According to the CIA, as of 2017, the countries in the eastern Africa region have a total population of around 537.9 million inhabitants.[59]

Country / Territory Capital Largest city by population[60] Second largest city by population[60]
East African Community
 Burundi Gitega (22,989; 2012 est.) Bujumbura Muyinga
 Kenya Nairobi Nairobi Mombasa (915,101; 2009 est.)
 Rwanda Kigali Kigali
Gitarama
 South Sudan Juba Juba Malakal
 Tanzania Dodoma Dar es Salaam Mwanza
 Uganda Kampala (1,507,114; 2014 est.) Kampala Gulu
Horn of Africa
 Djibouti
Djibouti City
(529,000; 2018 est.)
Djibouti City
 Ali Sabieh
 Eritrea Asmara Asmara Keren
 Ethiopia Addis Ababa Addis Ababa (2,739,551; 2007 est.) Dire Dawa
 Somalia Mogadishu (2,572,125) Mogadishu Hargeisa
Indian Ocean
 British Indian Ocean Territory Camp Thunder Cove Camp Thunder Cove –
 Comoros Moroni Moroni Mutsamudu
 French Southern Territories Saint Pierre Port-aux-Français –
 Madagascar Antananarivo (1,015,140; 2005 est.) Antananarivo Toamasina (326,286)[61]
 Mauritius Port Louis Port Louis Beau Bassin-Rose Hill
 Mayotte Mamoudzou Mamoudzou Dzaoudzi
 Réunion Saint Denis Saint Denis Saint Paul
 Seychelles Victoria Victoria Anse Etoile
Yemen Socotra Hadibu Hadibu
Qalansiyah
Northeast Africa
 Sudan Khartoum Omdurman Khartoum
Southeast Africa
 Malawi Lilongwe (868,800; 2012 est.) Lilongwe Blantyre (783,296; 2012 est.)
 Mozambique Maputo Maputo Nampula
 Zambia Lusaka Lusaka Kitwe
 Zimbabwe Harare Harare Bulawayo

Demographics

Further information:
Nilotic expansion

Eastern Africa had an estimated population of 260 million in 2000. This was projected to reach 890 million by 2050, with an average growth rate of 2.5% per annum. The 2000 population is expected to quintuple over the course of the 21st century, to 1.6 billion as of 2100 (UN estimates as of 2017).[62] In Ethiopia, there is an estimated population of 102 million as of 2016.[63]

Languages

Further information:
Niger-Congo languages, Nilo-Saharan languages, Indo-European languages, and Writing systems of Africa § Ancient orthographies

In the

Wolaytta
) branches.

In the

Kikuyu, Luhya, Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Kisukuma, Luganda and many others. Swahili, with at least 80 million speakers[citation needed
] as a first or second language, is an important trade language in the Great Lakes area. It has official status in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

Nilotic languages, such as Luo, Kalenjin, Maasai and Nuer, are spoken in lesser numbers, primarily in the African Great Lakes and Nile Valley.

Indo-European languages, such as English, French, Portuguese and Italian, remain important in higher institutions in some parts of the larger region.

Religion

Further information: Traditional African religions § East Africa, Islam in Africa, Christianity in Africa, and Religion in Africa

Climate

East Africa has a diverse climate that consists of hot, dry desert regions, cooler regions, and highlands.[64] Its climate generally is rather atypical of equatorial regions, being mostly arid or semi-arid with rainfall totals across much of the lowland regions below 600 millimetres or 24 inches per year. In fact, on the northern coast of Somalia, annual rainfall is less than 100 millimetres or 4 inches[65] and many years can go by without any rain whatsoever.[66] The causes of the low rainfall totals are not fully understood. One factor is presence of the Somali Jet (a fast wind system) in boreal summer, which brings cool southern hemisphere air into East Africa.[67] A second cause is the presence of east to west river valleys in the East African Rift, which channel strong moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean away from East Africa and towards the Congo Basin rainforest.[68]

Rainfall generally increases towards the south and with altitude, being around 400 mm (16 in) at

Moshi near Kilimanjaro. Rainfall in most of East Africa east of the Rwenzoris and Ethiopian Highlands is characterised by two main rainfall seasons, the long rains from March to May and the short rains from October to December. This is usually attributed to the passage of the Intertropical Convergence Zone across the region in those months, but it may also be analogous to the autumn monsoon rains of parts of Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and the Brazilian Nordeste. West of the mountains, the rainfall pattern is more typically tropical, with rain throughout the year near the equator and a single wet season in most of the Ethiopian Highlands from June to September — contracting to July and August around Asmara. Annual rainfall here ranges from over 1,600 mm (63 in) on the western slopes to around 1,250 mm (49 in) at Addis Ababa
and 550 mm (22 in) at Asmara. In the high mountains rainfall can be over 2,500 millimetres or 100 inches.

Rainfall variability is influenced by both

El Niño events and a positive Indian Ocean Dipole. El Niño events tend to increase rainfall except in the northern and western parts of the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, where they produce drought and poor Nile floods.[69] Similarly, a positive Indian Ocean Dipole result in warm sea-surface temperatures off the coast of East Africa and lead to increased rainfall over East Africa.[70] Temperatures in East Africa, except on the hot and generally humid coastal belt, are moderate, with maxima of around 25 °C (77 °F) and minima of 15 °C (59 °F) at an altitude of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft). At altitudes of above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), frosts
are common during the dry season and maxima typically about 21 °C (70 °F) or less.

Popular depictions

There are movies that have depicted East Africa in various forms.

7 Days in Entebbe, The Last King of Scotland, Out of Africa, Queen of Katwe, The Constant Gardener, Hotel Rwanda, The Good Lie, and Captain Phillips are a few of the critically acclaimed movies.[71] In the video games Halo 2 and Halo 3, East Africa is one of the central locations for the campaigns.[72]

Culture

Art

Further information: African art § East Africa

Architecture

Further information: Architecture of Africa § East Africa

Clothing

Further information: Folk costume § Eastern Africa

Cuisine

Further information: African cuisine § East Africa, and List of African cuisines § East African cuisine

Music

Further information: Music of Africa § West, Central, Southeast and South Africa; East African urban music; and Sub-Saharan African music traditions § East Africa

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to East Africa.

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Bibliography

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