Eastern Orthodoxy
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Eastern Orthodoxy, otherwise known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity or Byzantine Christianity,
Many of these jurisdictions correspond to the territories of one or more modern states; the
The spread of Eastern Orthodoxy began in the
Theology
Trinity
Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in the
Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a
In understanding the Trinity as "one God in three persons", "three persons" is not to be emphasised more than "one God", and vice versa. While the three persons are distinct, they are united in one divine essence, and their oneness is expressed in community and action so completely that they cannot be considered separately. For example, their salvation of mankind is an activity engaged in common: "Christ became man by the good will of the Father and by the cooperation of the Holy Spirit. Christ sends the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father, and the Holy Spirit forms Christ in our hearts, and thus God the Father is glorified." Their "communion of essence" is "indivisible". Trinitarian terminology—essence, hypostasis, etc.—are used "philosophically", "to answer the ideas of the heretics", and "to place the terms where they separate error and truth."[10]
Sin, salvation, and the incarnation
When Eastern Orthodox Christians refer to fallen nature they are not saying that human nature has become evil in itself. Human nature is still formed in the image of God; humans are still God's creation, and God has never created anything evil, but fallen nature remains open to evil intents and actions. It is sometimes said among the Eastern Orthodox that humans are "inclined to sin"; that is, people find some sinful things attractive. It is the nature of temptation to make sinful things seem the more attractive, and it is the fallen nature of humans that seeks or succumbs to the attraction. Eastern Orthodox Christians reject the Augustinian position that the descendants of Adam and Eve are actually guilty of the original sin of their ancestors.[11]
Resurrection of Christ
The Eastern Orthodox Church understands the death and resurrection of Jesus to be real historical events, as described in the gospels of the New Testament.
Christian life
Church teaching is that Eastern Orthodox Christians, through baptism, enter a new life of salvation through repentance whose purpose is to share in the life of God through the work of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Christian life is a spiritual pilgrimage in which each person, through the imitation of Christ and hesychasm,[12] cultivates the practice of unceasing prayer. Each life occurs within the life of the church as a member of the body of Christ.[13] It is then through the fire of God's love in the action of the Holy Spirit that each member becomes more holy, more wholly unified with Christ, starting in this life and continuing in the next.[14][15] The church teaches that everyone, being born in God's image, is called to theosis, fulfillment of the image in likeness to God. God the creator, having divinity by nature, offers each person participation in divinity by cooperatively accepting His gift of grace.[16]
The Eastern Orthodox Church, in understanding itself to be the
Virgin Mary and other saints
Pre-eminent among the saints is the
The Eastern Orthodox believe that Christ, from the moment of his conception, was both fully God and fully human. Mary is thus called the Theotokos or Bogoroditsa as an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin. Scriptural references to "brothers" of Christ are interpreted as kin. Due to her unique place in salvation history according to Eastern Orthodox teaching, Mary is honoured above all other saints in this religion and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.[20]
The Eastern Orthodox Church regards the bodies of all saints as holy because of their participation in prescribed rituals called holy mysteries. Physical items connected with saints are also regarded as holy, through their participation in the earthly works of those saints. According to Eastern Orthodox church teaching and tradition, God himself bears witness to this holiness of saints' relics through the many miracles connected with them that have been reported throughout history since biblical times, often including healing from disease and injury.[21]
Eschatology
Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise (
The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.[24] For this reason the Church offers a special prayer for the dead on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Eastern Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the Tomb.[23]
The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:
- All souls will be reunited with their resurrected bodies.
- All souls will fully experience their spiritual state.
- Having been perfected, the saints will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness.[23]
Bible
The official Bible of the Eastern Orthodox Church contains the
Once established as holy scripture, there has never been any question that the Eastern Orthodox Church holds the full list[
Eastern Orthodoxy does not subscribe to the doctrine of sola scriptura. Rather, Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that its church has defined what Scripture is, and therefore, its church also interprets the meanings of Scripture.[32]
Scriptures are understood by Eastern Orthodox interpretation to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy and wisdom literature, and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation. While divinely inspired, the text still consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms. The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible.[33]
Holy tradition and patristic consensus
In Eastern Orthodoxy, "
Holy tradition is firm, even unyielding, but not rigid or legalistic; instead, it lives and breathes within the church.[37] For example, the New Testament was entirely written by the early church (mostly the apostles). The whole Bible was accepted as scripture by means of holy tradition practised within the early church. The writing and acceptance took five centuries, by which time the holy scriptures themselves had become in their entirety a part of holy tradition.[38] But holy tradition did not change, because "that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all" remained consistent, without additions, and without subtractions. The historical development of the Divine Liturgy and other worship services and devotional practices of the church provide a similar example of extension and growth "without change".[39]
Besides these, holy tradition includes the doctrinal definitions and statements of faith of the seven ecumenical councils, including the
In other cases, opinions differ, no consensus is forthcoming, and all are free to choose. With agreement among the Church Fathers, though, the authority of interpretation grows, and full patristic consensus is very strong. With canon law (which tends to be highly rigorous and very strict, especially with clergy) an unalterable validity also does not apply, since canons deal with living on earth, where conditions are always changing and each case is subject to almost infinite variation from the next.[33]
By tradition, the Eastern Orthodox Church, when faced with issues that are larger than a single bishop can resolve, holds a local council. The bishops convene (as St. Paul called the Corinthians to do) to seek the mind of the church.[40] A council's declarations or edicts then reflect its consensus (if one can be found). An ecumenical council is only called for issues of such importance, difficulty or pervasiveness that smaller councils are insufficient to address them. Ecumenical councils' declarations and canons carry binding weight by virtue of their representation across the whole church, by which the mind of the church can be readily seen. However, not all issues are so difficult as to require an ecumenical council to resolve. Some doctrines or decisions, not defined in a formal statement or proclaimed officially, nevertheless are held by the church unshakably and unanimously without internal disturbance, and these, also reflecting the mind of the church, are just as firmly irrevocable as a formal declaration of an ecumenical council. Lack of formality does not imply lack of authority within holy tradition.[33]
Territorial expansion and doctrinal integrity
As the church increased in size through the centuries, the logistic dynamics of operating such large entities shifted: patriarchs, metropolitans, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses, all rose up to cover certain points of administration.
Liturgy
Church calendar
Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones. A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed:[41]
Each day of the Weekly Cycle is dedicated to certain special memorials. Sunday is dedicated to Christ's Resurrection; Monday honors the holy bodiless powers (angels, archangels, etc.); Tuesday is dedicated to the prophets and especially the greatest of the prophets, St. John the Forerunner and Baptist of the Lord; Wednesday is consecrated to the Cross and recalls Judas' betrayal; Thursday honors the holy apostles and hierarchs, especially St. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra in Lycia; Friday is also consecrated to the Cross and recalls the day of the Crucifixion; Saturday is dedicated to All Saints, especially the Mother of God, and to the memory of all those who have departed this life in the hope of resurrection and eternal life.
Church services
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Music and chanting
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For the composition of religious chant, the
Northern Slavs, however, have used simpler tonal systems evolved through the sundry local types of Znamenny chant; today Western music, often with four-part harmony, and the "tones" are simply sets of melodies.
There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.[42]
Traditions
Monasticism
The Eastern Orthodox Church places emphasis and awards a high level of prestige to traditions of monasticism and asceticism with roots in Early Christianity in the Near East and Byzantine Anatolia. The most important centres of Christian Orthodox monasticism are Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) and Mount Athos in Northern Greece.
All bishops are monks; if a man who is not a monk is elected a bishop, he must be tonsured a monk before he may be consecrated. Customarily, also, a man must either be a monk or be married to be ordained.
Icons and symbols
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Icons
Aspects of the iconography borrow from the pre-Christian Roman and Hellenistic art. Henry Chadwick wrote, "In this instinct there was a measure of truth. The representations of Christ as the Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities."[43]
Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely.[44] Most Eastern Orthodox homes have an area set aside for family prayer, usually an eastern facing wall, where are hung many icons. Icons have been part of Orthodox Christianity since the beginning of the church.[45]
Iconostasis
An iconostasis, also called the templon, is a wall of
The first ceiling-high, five-leveled Russian iconostasis was designed by
Cross
The small top crossbar represents the sign that
Other crosses associated with the Eastern Orthodox Church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the
A common symbolism of the slanted foot stool is the foot-rest points up, toward Heaven, on Christ's right hand-side, and downward, to Hades, on Christ's left. "Between two thieves Thy Cross did prove to be a balance of righteousness: wherefore one of them was dragged down to Hades by the weight of his blasphemy [the balance points downward], whereas the other was lightened of his transgressions unto the comprehension of theology [the balance points upward]. O Christ God, glory to Thee."[48]Art and architecture
The Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on New York City's Upper East Side is the largest Eastern Orthodox Christian church in the Western Hemisphere.[49]
Local customs
Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction, which is often also drawn along national lines. Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title (e.g.
Holy mysteries (sacraments)
Those things which in the West are often termed
Baptism
Baptism is the mystery which transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism a person is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the service, water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.[52]
Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptise.[53]
Chrismation
Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism.[54][55] It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[56] As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.[57]
A baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.[57]
Anointing with chrism substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.[58]
Holy Communion (Eucharist)
Communion is given only to baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest administers the gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.[59] From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.[57]
Repentance (Confession)
There are many different practices regarding how often Eastern Orthodox Christians should go to confession. Some Patriarchates advise confession before each reception of
Marriage
From the Orthodox perspective, marriage is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments. As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in Catholicism, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and his Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union.[61][62] The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of same-sex marriage.[63][64]
Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual".[65] Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and Church, is eternal.[65]
The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the E. Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.[66]
Holy orders
Widowed priests and
In 2016, the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reintroduce the order of deaconess.
Distribution
Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion in the world's largest country by land area, Russia (77%),[71][72][73] where roughly half the world's Eastern Orthodox Christians live. The religion is also heavily concentrated in the rest of Eastern Europe, where it is the majority religion in Ukraine (65.4%[74]–77%),[75] Romania (81%),[76] Belarus (48%[77]–73%[78]), Greece (98%),[76] Serbia (86%),[76] Bulgaria (86%),[76] Moldova (90%),[76] Georgia (80%),[76] North Macedonia (70%),[76] Cyprus (80%)[76] and Montenegro (73%);[76] it is also predominant in the disputed territories of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria.
Significant minorities are present in several European countries, such as:
Significant Eastern Orthodox populations in the Eastern Mediterranean (primarily Greek Orthodox) are Lebanon (8%),[82] Syria (5–8%), Jordan (2–5%),[83][84] State of Palestine (1%–2.5%),[85] and Israel (1–2%).[86][87]
See also
- Orthodoxy
- Eastern Orthodox theology
- Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar
- Revised Julian calendar
- Western Rite Orthodoxy
- Russian Orthodox cross
- List of Eastern Orthodox saints
Notes
- ^ Including the deuterocanonical books
References
Citations
- ^ ISBN 9780470670606..
Byzantine Christianity originated in the Eastern Roman Empire where it evolved concurrently with the emerging Byzantine state. It was the dominant form of Eastern Christianity throughout the Middle Ages and during this period it developed a complex theological system with unique spiritual practices. Byzantine Christianity's fortunes were in many ways tied to the Byzantine state, because when the empire experienced expansion and heightened influence so did the faith. [...] Although the empire eventually fell under the weight of centuries of Islamic aggression, much of Byzantine Christianity has survived in the modern Eastern Orthodox churches
- ISBN 978-1-4129-1006-4.
About one-third of the world's population is considered Christian and can be divided into three main branches: (1) Roman Catholicism (the largest coherent group, representing over one billion baptized members); (2) Orthodox Christianity (including Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy); and (3) Protestantism (comprising many denominations and schools of thought, including Anglicanism, Reformed, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Methodism, Evangelicalism, and Pentecostalism).
- ISBN 978-1-317-34451-3.
Orthodox Churches represent one of the three major branches of Christianity, along with Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.
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- ^ a b c Ware 1993, p. 279
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Regarding the issue of the institution of Deaconesses, it was decided to revive this and a tripartite committee of Hierarchs was appointed for a detailed consideration of the subject.
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- ^ There is no official census of religion in Russia, and estimates are based on surveys only. In August 2012, ARENA Archived 2018-06-12 at the Wayback Machine determined that about 48% of Russians are Christians (including Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant, and non-denominational), which is slightly less than an absolute 50%+ majority. However, later that year the Levada Center Archived 2012-12-31 at the Wayback Machine determined that 76% of Russians are Christians, and in June 2013 the Public Opinion Foundation Archived 2020-04-15 at the Wayback Machine determined that 65% of Russians are Christians. These findings are in line with Pew Archived 2018-10-04 at the Wayback Machine's 2010 survey, which determined that 73.6% of Russians are Christians, with VTSIOM Archived 2020-09-29 at the Wayback Machine's 2010 survey (~77% Christian), and with Ipsos MORI Archived 2013-01-17 at the Wayback Machine's 2011 survey (69%).
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Further reading
- Adeney, Walter F. (1908). The Greek and Eastern Churches (PDF). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Buxhoeveden, Daniel; Woloschak, Gayle, eds. (2011). Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church (1st ed.). Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409481614. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Dvornik, Francis (1948). The Photian Schism: History and Legend. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- ISBN 9780881410860. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Erickson, John H. (1992). "The Local Churches and Catholicity: An Orthodox Perspective". The Jurist. 52: 490–508. Archived from the original on 2020-11-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- ISBN 9780664224974. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- FitzGerald, Thomas (2007). "Eastern Christianity in the United States". The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 269–279. ISBN 9780470766392. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- ISBN 9780198269014. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Krindatch, Alexei D. ed., Atlas of American Orthodox Christian Churches (Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2011) online Archived 2016-10-06 at the Wayback Machine.
- ISBN 9780227675366. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Mascall, Eric Lionel (1958). The Recovery of Unity: A Theological Approach. London: Longmans.
- ISBN 9781405150668.
- ISBN 9781405185394. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- ISBN 9781405185394. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- ISBN 9780351176449. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Archived from the original on 2023-04-23. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Paraskevas, J. E.; Reinstein, F. (1969). The Eastern Orthodox Church: A Brief History. Washington: El Greco Press.
- ISBN 9780521071888. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
- Scouteris, Constantine, A Brief Outline of the Orthodox Church, Ἐκκλησιαστικός Φάρος, 65 (2004), pp. 60–75. Archived 2022-02-03 at the Wayback Machine