Christianity in Africa

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Eastern Orthodoxy in Africa
)

Colour photograph
The Church of Saint George in Lalibela, Ethiopia is rock-hewn in the shape of a cross

Christianity in Africa first arrived in

Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo.[2][3]

The

bishop of Morocco in 1246.[11] The bishopric of Marrakesh continued to exist until the late 16th century.[12]

In the late 15th century, Portuguese traders and missionaries began arriving in West Africa, first in Guinea, Mauritania, the Gambia, Ghana, and Sierra Leone, then Nigeria and later in the Kingdom of Kongo, where they would find success in converting prominent local leaders to Catholicism. During and after the Scramble for Africa, late in the 19th century, these Christian communities and others began to flourish up and down the coast, as well as in Central and Southern Africa as new missionary activities from Europe started,[13] (Christian evangelists were intimately involved in the colonial process in southern Africa).[14] In the 21st century, they constitute the bulk of the booming Christian community on the continent.

Today, Christianity is embraced by the majority of the population in most Southern African, Southeast African, and Central African states and others in large parts of Horn of Africa and West Africa. The Coptic Christians make up a significant minority in Egypt. As of 2020, Christians formed 49% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 42%.[15] In a relatively short time, Africa has risen from having a majority of followers of indigenous, traditional religions, to being predominantly a continent of Christians and Muslims. Importantly, today within most self-declared Christian communities in Africa, there is a significant and sustained syncretism with African Traditional Religious beliefs and practices and African Christianity.[16]

A 2018 study by the

Latin America has the second-highest number of Christians at 601 million Christians, while Europe has the third-highest with 571 million Christians.[18]

According to updated data for 2020, there are now nearly 658 million Christians in Africa, with 760 million expected by 2025.[19] This surpasses earlier estimates of 630 million to 700 million for 2025: "By 2025, that number is expected to nearly double, to somewhere between 630 and 700 million believers."[20] As of 2023, there are an estimated 718 million Christians from all denominations in Africa.[21]

History

Early Church

bishop of the Alexandrian Patriarchate in about the year 43.[22] At first the church in Alexandria was mainly Greek-speaking. By the end of the 2nd century the scriptures and liturgy had been translated into three local languages. Christianity in Sudan also spread in the early 1st century, and the Nubian churches, which were established in the sixth century within the kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia were linked to those of Egypt.[23]

Christianity also grew in northwestern Africa (today known as the Maghreb). The churches there were linked to the Church of Rome and provided Pope Gelasius I, Pope Miltiades and Pope Victor I, all of them Christian Berbers like Saint Augustine and his mother Saint Monica.

  Spread of Christianity to AD 325
  Spread of Christianity to AD 600

At the beginning of the 3rd century the church in Alexandria expanded rapidly, with five new suffragan bishoprics. At this time, the Bishop of Alexandria began to be called Pope, as the senior bishop in Egypt. In the middle of the 3rd century the church in Egypt suffered severely in the persecution under the Emperor Decius. Many Christians fled from the towns into the desert. When the persecution died down, however, some remained in the desert as hermits to pray. This was the beginning of Christian monasticism, which over the following years spread from Africa to other parts of the Gohar, and Europe through France and Ireland.

The early 4th century in Egypt began with renewed persecution under the Emperor Diocletian. In the Ethiopian/Eritrean Kingdom of Aksum, King Ezana declared Christianity the official religion after having been converted by Frumentius, resulting in the promotion of Christianity in Ethiopia (eventually leading to the foundation of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church).

In these first few centuries, African Christian leaders such as Origen, Lactantius, Augustine, Tertullian, Marius Victorinus, Pachomius, Didymus the Blind, Ticonius, Cyprian, Athanasius and Cyril (along with rivals Valentinus, Plotinus, Arius and Donatus Magnus) influenced the Christian world outside Africa with responses to Gnosticism, Arianism, Montanism, Marcionism, Pelagianism and Manichaeism, and the idea of the university (after the Library of Alexandria), understanding of the Trinity, Vetus Latina translations, methods of exegesis and biblical interpretation, ecumenical councils, monasticism, Neoplatonism and African literary, dialectical and rhetorical traditions.[24]

After the Muslim conquest of North Africa

Reconstruction of a church from Old Dongola, the capital of the Makurian kingdom
Colour photograph
The basilica of Our Lady of Africa in Algiers

After the

Islamization of these regions, as well as the speed at which conversions happened, is a complex subject.[26][5] Among other rules, the Muslim rulers imposed a special poll tax, the jizya, on non-Muslims, which acted as an economic pressure to convert alongside other social advantages converts could gain in Muslim society.[26][4] The Catholic church gradually declined along with local Latin dialect.[27][28]

Historians have considered many theories to explain the decline of Christianity in North Africa, proposing diverse factors such as the recurring internal wars and external invasions in the region during

Donatist heresy, and one theory proposes this as a factor that contributed to the early obliteration of the Church in the present day Maghreb. Proponents of this theory compare this situation with the strong monastic tradition in Egypt and Syria, where Christianity remained more vigorous.[29] In addition, the Romans and the Byzantines were unable to completely assimilate the indigenous people like the Berbers.[29][30]

Some historians remark how the

martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers;[32][33][34][35] many were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs.[33][34][35]

From the

Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes.[6][36] Islamization was likely slower in Egypt than in other Muslim-controlled regions.[5] Up until the Fatimid period (10th to 12th centuries), Christians likely still constituted a majority of the population, although scholarly estimates on this issue are tentative and vary between authors.[5][7][37]: 194  Under the reign of the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim (r. 96–1021), an exceptional persecution of Christians occurred,[7]: 23  This included closing and demolishing churches and forced conversion to Islam, which brought about a wave of conversions.[8][38][39]

with a black African attendant

There are reports that the Roman Catholic faith persisted in the region from Tripolitania (present-day western Libya) to present-day Morocco for several centuries after the completion of the Arab conquest by 700.[40] A Christian community is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria.[41] There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 to tombs of Catholic saints outside the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Muslim Spain.[citation needed] In addition, calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome.[citation needed]

Local Christians came under pressure when the Muslim regimes of the

Berber Christians continued to live in Tunis and Nefzaoua in the south of Tunisia up until the early 15th century, and in the first quarter of the 15th century we even read that the native Christians of Tunis, though much assimilated, extended their church, perhaps because the last Christians from all over the Maghreb had gathered there. However, they were not in communion with the Catholic church.[41] The community of Tunisian Christians existed in the town of Tozeur up to the 18th century.[43]

Another group of Christians who came to North Africa after being deported from Islamic Spain were called the

Priests of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

In June 1225, Honorius III issued the bull

bishop of Morocco Lope Fernandez de Ain was made the head of the Church of Africa, the only church officially allowed to preach in the continent, on 19 December 1246 by Innocent IV.[11]

The medieval Moroccan historian

Innocent IV asked emirs of Tunis, Ceuta and Bugia to permit Lope and Franciscian friars to look after the Christians in those regions. He thanked the Caliph al-Sa'id for granting protection to the Christians and requested to allow them to create fortresses along the shores, but the Caliph rejected this request.[46]

Jesuit missions in Africa

Another phase of Christianity in Africa began with the arrival of Portuguese in the 15th century.[47] After the end of Reconquista, the Christian Portuguese and Spanish captured many ports in North Africa.[48]

Missionary expeditions undertaken by the

Society of Jesus (Jesuits) began as early as 1548 in various regions of Africa. In 1561, Gonçalo da Silveira, a Portuguese missionary, managed to baptize Monomotapa, king of the Shona people in the territory of Zimbabwe.[49] A modest sized group of Jesuits began to establish their presence in the area of Abyssinia, or Ethiopia Superior, around the same time of Silveira's presence in Southern Africa. Although Jesuits regularly confronted persecution and harassment, their mission withstood the test of time for nearly a century. Despite this confrontation, they found success in instituting Catholic doctrine in a region that, prior to the existence of their vocation, maintained strictly established orthodoxies. During the sixteenth century, Jesuits extended their mission into the old Kongo Kingdom
, developing upon a preexisting Catholic mission which had culminated in the construction of a local church. Jesuit missions functioned similarly in Mozambique and Angola until in 1759 the Society was overcome by Portuguese authority.

The Jesuits went largely unchallenged by rival denominational missions in Africa. Other religious congregations did exist who sought to evangelize regions of the continent under Portuguese dominion, however, their influence was far less significant than that of the Christians. The Jesuit's ascendency to prominence began with the padroado in the fifteenth century and continued until other European countries initiated missions of their own, threatening Portugal's status as sole patron of the continent. The favor of the Jesuits took a negative turn in the mid eighteenth century when Portugal no longer held the same dominion in Africa as it had in the fifteenth century. The Jesuits found themselves expelled from Mozambique and Angola, as a result, the existence of Catholic missions diminished significantly in these regions.

The Maghreb

Christian Berber family from Kabylia.

The bishopric of Marrakesh continued to exist until the late 16th century and was borne by the

Saadi dynasty. A small Franciscan chapel and monastery in the mellah of the city existed until the 18th century.[12]

The growth of Catholicism in the region after the French conquest was built on

French rule, the Catholic population of Algeria peaked at over one million.[50] Due to the exodus of the pieds-noirs in the 1960s, more North African Christians of Berber or Arab descent now live in France
than in Greater Maghreb.

Colour photograph
Roman Catholic Cathedral of Rabat

In 2009, the

wilaya of Tizi Ouzou.[51] In that wilaya, the proportion of Christians has been estimated to be between 1% and 5%. A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria.[52]

Before the independence in 1956; Morocco was home to half a million

French Morocco reached about 360,000 or about 4.1% of the population.[54] In 1950, Catholics in Spanish protectorate in Morocco and Tangier constitute 14.5% of the population, and the Spanish Morocco was home to 113,000 Catholic settlers.[54] Catholics in Spanish protectorate in Morocco and Tangier were mostly of Spanish descent, and to a lesser extent of Portuguese, French and Italian ancestry.[54] The U.S. State Department estimates the number of Moroccan Christians as more than 40,000.[55] Pew-Templeton estimates the number of Moroccan Christians at 20,000.[56] Most Christians reside in the Casablanca, Tangier and Rabat urban areas.[57] The majority of Christians in Morocco are foreigners, although some reports states that there is a growing number of native Moroccans (45,000) converting to Christianity,[58][59] especially in the rural areas. Many of the converts are baptized secretly in Morocco's churches.[60] Since 1960 a growing number of Moroccan Muslims are converting to Christianity.[61]

Before the independence in 1956;

French descent, and a large group of native-born citizens of Berber and Arab descent, numbers 50,000 and is dispersed throughout the country. The Office for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor in the United States also noted the presence of thousands of Tunisians who converted to Christianity.[63]

Some scholars and media reports indicate that there been increasing numbers of conversions to Christianity among the Berbers.[64][65][66]

Africanizing Christianity

Moses and his Ethiopian wife Zipporah (Mozes en zijn Ethiopische vrouw Sippora). Jacob Jordaens, c. 1650

According to

Dona Beatriz was a woman from Central Africa known for her controversial views on the acceptance of polygamy – she argued that Jesus never condemned it – and she was burnt at the stake. European missionaries were faced with what they considered an issue in maintaining Victorian values, while still promoting the vernacular and literacy. Missionaries largely condemned the controversial African views and worked against leaders branching out. Simon Kimbangu became a martyr
, put in a cage because of Western missionaries concern, and died there.

Within African communities, there were clashes brought on by Christianization. As a religion meant to "colonize the conscience and consciousness of the colonized"[70] Christianity caused disputes even amongst hereditary leaders, such as between Khama III and his father Sekgoma in nineteenth-century Botswana. Young leaders formed ideas based on Christianity and challenged elders. Dona Beatriz, an African prophet, made Christianity political and eventually went on to become an African Nationalist, planning to overthrow the Ugandan state with the help of other prophets. According to Paul Kollman, teaching from missionaries was up to the interpretation of each person and took different forms when acted upon.[71]

"Spiritual headwashing" in Cotonou, Benin. Celestial Church of Christ is a religion which started in Benin in the middle of the 20th century by Samuel Joseph Biléou Oschoffa
Christianity by country

David Adamo, a Nigerian within the Aladura church chose portions of the Bible that closely resembled what his church found important. They read portions of Psalms because of the idea that missionaries were not sharing the power of their faith. They found power in reading these verses and put them into the context of their lives.

In addition to Africanizing Christianity, there were movements to Africanize Islam. In

Sunni Africans were largely against the Ahmadiyyas; the Ahmadiyyas were the first to translate the Quran into Swahili, and the Sunnis opposed that as well. There was a militarism developed in different groups and movements like the Ahmadiyyas and the Mahdist
movement and clashes between groups with opposing views.

The influenza pandemic of 1918 accelerated the Africanization of Christianity and hence its growth in twentieth century Africa.[72] As many as five million Africans are estimated to have died. European governments, churches and medicine were powerless against the plague, boosting anti-imperial sentiment. This contributed to growth of independent and prophetic Christian mass movements with prophecy, healings, and nationalist church restructuring. For example, the inception of the Aladura movement in Nigeria coincided with the pandemic. Evolving into the Christ Apostolic Church, it gave rise to many offshoots, which continued to emerge into the 1950s spreading with migrants around the world. For example, the Redeemed Christian Church of God, founded in 1952, has congregations in a dozen African states, Western Europe and North America.

Christian education in Africa

Christians and Muslims built schools throughout the continent of Africa, teaching missionary beliefs and philosophies. Since the Quran must only be recited in Arabic, It is necessary that a practitioner of the Muslim faith reads and understands the meaning of Arabic words in order to recite and/or memorize the Quran. As a result of the nature of Islam in Africa, Muslim missionaries were not prompted to translate their sacred text into the native language. Unlike that of Islam, Christian missionaries were compelled to spread an understanding of their gospel in the native language of the indigenous people they sought to convert. The bible was then translated and communicated in these native languages. Christian schools did teach English, as well as mathematics, philosophy, and values inherent to Western culture and civilization. The conflicting branches of secularism and religiosity within the Christian schools represents a divergence between the various goals of educational institutions within Africa.[73]

Current status

Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and all Africa

Christianity is now one of the two most widely practiced religions in Africa.

Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses
.

Some experts predict the shift of Christianity's center from the European industrialized nations to Africa and Asia in modern times. Yale University historian Lamin Sanneh stated that "African Christianity was not just an exotic, curious phenomenon in an obscure part of the world, but that African Christianity might be the shape of things to come."[77] The statistics from the World Christian Encyclopedia (David Barrett) illustrate the emerging trend of dramatic Christian growth on the continent and supposes, that in 2025 there will be 633 million Christians in Africa.[78]

A 2015 study estimates 2,161,000 Christian believers are from a formerly Muslim background in Africa, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.[79]

The rise of the megachurch

Pentecostal denominations.[83][84] The largest church auditorium, Glory Dome, was inaugurated in 2018 with 100,000 seats, in Abuja, Nigeria.[85]

Statistics by country

Christianity by country
Country Christians % Christian % Catholic % Others GDP/Capita PPP World Bank 2012
 Algeria (details) 380,000[86] 2% 1% 1% 8,515
 Angola (details) 17,094,000 75%[87] 50% 25% 6,105
 Benin (details) 3,943,000 42.8% 27% 15% 1,583
 Botswana (details) 1,416,000 71.6% 5% 66% 16,986
 Burkina Faso (details) 3,746,000 22.0% 18% 4% 1,513
 Burundi (details) 7,662,000 75.0% 60% 15% 560
 Cameroon (details) 13,390,000 65.0% 38.4% 26.3% 2,324
 Cape Verde (details) 487,000 89.1%[citation needed] 78.7% 10.4% 4,430
 Central African Republic (details) 2,302,000 80% 29% 51% 857
 Chad (details) 4,150,000[citation needed] 35.0% 20% 15% 1,493
 
details
)
15,000 2.1% 1,230
 Congo, Republic of (details) 3,409,000 90.7% 50% 40% 4,426
 Congo, Democratic Republic of (details) 63,150,000 92% 50% 42% 422
 Djibouti (details) 53,000 6.0% 1% 5% 2,784
 Egypt (details) 10,000,000 10% 6,723
 Equatorial Guinea (details) 683,000 88.7%[citation needed] 80.7% 8.0% 30,233
 Eritrea (details) 2,871,000 63%[88] 4% 54% 566
 Ethiopia (details) 52,580,000 64% 0.7% 63.4% 1,139
 Gabon (details) 1,081,000 88.0%[89] 41.9% 46.1% 16,086
 Gambia (details) 79,000 4.2%[90] 1,948
 Ghana (details) 19,300,000 71.2%[91] 13.1% 58.1% 2,048
 Guinea (details) 1,032,000 8.9%[92] 5% 5% 1,069
 Guinea-Bissau (details) 165,000 10.0% 10.0% 1,192
 Ivory Coast (details) 7,075,000 32.8% 28.9% 3.9% 2,039
 Kenya (details) 34,774,000 85.1% 23.4% 61.7% 1,761
 Lesotho (details) 1,876,000 90.0% 45% 45% 1,963
 Liberia (details) 1,391,000 85.5%[93] 85.5% 655
 Libya (details) 170,000[citation needed] 2.7%[citation needed] 0.5% 1.5% 17,665
 
details
)
8,260,000 41.0% 978
 Malawi (details) 12,538,000 79.9% 902
 Mali (details) 348,000 2.4%[94] 1,214
 Mauritania (details) 10,000[95] 0.14% 2,603
 Mauritius (details) 418,000 32.2% 15,649
 Morocco (details) 336,000 1%[96] 5,193
 Mozambique (details) 13,121,000 56.1% 28.4% 27.7% 1,024
 Namibia (details) 1,991,000 90.0% 13.7% 76.3% 7,488
 Niger (details) 85,000 0.5% 5% 665
 Nigeria (details) 74,400,000-107,000,000 40%[97]- 58%[98] 10–14,5% 30–43,5% 6,204
 Rwanda (details) 9,619,000 93.6% 56.9% 26% 1,354
 Senegal (details) 570,000 4.2%[99] 1,944
 Seychelles (details) 80,000 94.7% 82% 15.2% 27,008
 Sierra Leone (details) 619,000-1,294,000 10%[100]-20.9%[101] 1,359
 Somalia (details) 1,000[102] 0.01% 0.0002% 0.01%
 South Africa (details) 43,090,000 79.8%[103] 5% 75% 11,440
 South Sudan (details) 6,010,000[104] 60.5%[105] 30% 30%
 Sudan (details) 525,000 1.5%[106]
 Tanzania (details) 31,342,000 61.4%[107] 1,601
 Togo (details) 1,966,000 29.0% 1,051
 
details
)
30,000[108][a]
 Uganda (details) 29,943,000 88.6% 41.9% 46.7% 1,352
 
details
)
200 0.04% 0.04%
 Zambia (details) 12,939,000 95.5%[109] 20.2% 72.3% 1712
 Zimbabwe (details) 12,500,000 87.0%[110] 17% 63% 559
Africa 526,016,926 62.7% 21.0%[111] 41.7% -

Denominations

Christianity largest groups in Africa

Pew projected that 53% of Africa's population would be Christian in 2020.[112]

Catholicism

Roman Catholic

Catholic Church membership rose from 2 million in 1900 to 140 million in 2000.[113] In 2005, the Catholic Church in Africa, including Eastern Catholic Churches, was followed by approximately 135 million of the 809 million people in Africa. In 2009, when Pope Benedict XVI visited Africa, it was estimated at 158 million.[114] Most belong to the Latin Church, but there are also millions of members of the Eastern Catholic Churches.

Orthodoxy

Oriental Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy

  • Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria – 500 000[125]

Protestantism

In 2010, Pew estimated that there were around 300 million Protestants in Sub Saharan Africa.[126] Protestantism is the largest Christian group in Africa, with 35.9% (more than a half) in sub-Saharan Africa.[127] Protestant have grown to 35.9% of the whole population of the continent.[128] The three countries with more Protestant population are: Nigeria with 60 million (37.7% of the population), Kenya with 48 million (84% of the population), and South Africa with 24 million (47.7% of the population), these three countries add up to around 121 million Protestants.[129] There are an estimated 60 million Anglicans and 23 million Lutherans in Africa.[130][131] There are also approximately 10 million Baptists and another 25 million Methodists on the continent.[132][133] Presbyterians in Africa are estimated to number more than twenty million.[134]

Largest Protestant traditions in Africa

Anglicanism

Baptists

Catholic Apostolic Church (Irvingism)

Lutheranism

Lutheranism in Africa represent 24.13 million people.[150]

Methodism

With over 20 denominations in the continent, World Methodist Council has 17.08 million members in the whole continent.[159]

Reformed (Calvinism)

Pentecostalism

The population of

Pentecostal Christians is around 202.29 million in 2015, being 35.32 percent of the continent's Christian population.[189] The African Pentecostal population is expected to reach 257 million in 2025.[190]

Mennonites

Other evangelical groups

Other Christian groups

African-initiated churches

60 million people are members of African-initiated churches.[195]

Restorationism

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Tunisia's Ministry of Religious Affairs estimates there are approximately 30,000 Christians residing in the country, of which the majority are foreigners and about 80% of whom are Roman Catholic. Approximately 7000 Christians are Tunisian Citizens, mostly Anglicans and other Protestants.[108]

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Further reading

  • Cinnamon, John M. "Missionary expertise, social science, and the uses of ethnographic knowledge in colonial Gabon." History in Africa 33 (2006): 413-432. online[permanent dead link]
  • Froise, Marjorie. Southern Africa : a factual portrait of the Christian Church in South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland (1989) online
  • Froise, Marjorie. World Christianity : South Central Africa : a factual portrait of the Christian church (1991) online
  • Hastings, Adrian. A history of African Christianity, 1950-1975 (Cambridge University Press, 1979).
  • Hastings Adrian. Church and mission in modern Africa (1967) online
  • Hastings Adrian. The Church in Africa, 1450–1950 (Clarendon, 1995). online
  • Isichei, Elizabeth. A history of Christianity in Africa: From antiquity to the present (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1995) online.
  • Lamport, Mark A. ed. Encyclopedia of Christianity in the global south (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018)
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott. The Great Century: North Africa and Asia 1800 A.D. to 1914 A.D. (A History of The Expansion of Christianity, Volume 5) (1943), Comprehensive scholarly coverage. full text online also online review;
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A history of the expansion of Christianity. 6. The great century in the Americas, Australasia, and Africa. 1800–1914 (1943) online review
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott. The twentieth century outside Europe : the Americas, the Pacific, Asia, and Africa : the emerging world Christian community (1962) online
  • Meyer, Birgit. "Christianity in Africa: From African independent to Pentecostal-charismatic churches." Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 447-474. online
  • Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions (1986), Global coverage over 19 centuries in 624 pages; online book also see. online review
  • Ranger, T.O. and John Weller, eds. Themes in the Christian history of Central Africa (1975) online

Historiography and memory

  • Bongmba, Elias Kifon. "Writing African Christianity: Perspectives from the History of the Historiography of African Christianity." Religion and Theology 23.3-4 (2016): 275-312. online[permanent dead link]
  • Etherington. Norman. "Recent Trends in the Historiography of Christianity in Southern Africa" in Critical Readings in The History of Christian Mission: volume 3" ed by Martha Frederiks and Dorottya Nagy. (Brill, 2021) pp 39–66.
  • Hastings, Adrian. "African Christian studies, 1967-1999: Reflections of an editor." Journal of religion in Africa 30#1 (2000): 30-44. online
  • Maluleke, Tinyiko Sam. "The Quest for Muted Black Voices in History: Some Pertinent Issues in (South) African Mission Historiography" in Critical Readings in The History of Christian Mission: volume 3" ed by Martha Frederiks and Dorottya Nagy. (Brill, 2021) pp 95–115.
  • Maxwell, David. "Writing the history of African Christianity: Reflections of an editor." Journal of religion in Africa 36.3-4 (2006): 379-399.

External links