Economic history of India

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

GDP per capita in India, since 1600

India was one of the richest countries in the world, for about two and a half millennia starting around the end of 1st millennium BC and ending around the beginning of British rule in India.[1]

Around 500 BC, the Mahajanapadas minted punch-marked silver coins. The period was marked by intensive trade activity and urban development. By 300 BC, the Maurya Empire had united most of the Indian subcontinent including Tamilakam, which was ruled by Three Crowned Kings. The resulting political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.

The Maurya Empire was followed by

Hoysalas. The Indian subcontinent had the largest economy of any region in the world for most of the interval between the 1st and 18th centuries.[2][3][4][5] From 1-1000 AD India constituted roughly 30% of the world's GDP. In the year 1000, Maddison estimates 28.5% of the world's population lived in India.[3]

India experienced per-capita

GDP growth in the high medieval era, coinciding with the Delhi Sultanate. By the late 17th century, most of the Indian subcontinent had been reunited under the Mughal Empire, which for a time again became the largest economy and manufacturing power in the world, producing about a quarter of global GDP, before fragmenting and being conquered over the next century.[6] Bengal Subah, the empire's wealthiest province, that solely accounted for 40% of Dutch imports outside the west,[7] had an advanced, productive agriculture, textile manufacturing and shipbuilding, in a period of proto-industrialization.[8][9]

By the 18th century, the Mysoreans had embarked on an ambitious economic development program that established the Kingdom of Mysore as a major economic power. Sivramkrishna analyzing agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan in 1800–1801, arrived at estimates, using "subsistence basket", that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level.[10] The Maratha Empire also managed an effective administration and tax collection policy throughout the core areas under its control and extracted chauth from vassal states.[11]

India experienced

deindustrialisation and cessation of various craft industries under British rule,[12] which along with fast economic and population growth in the Western world, resulted in India's share of the world economy declining from 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950,[13] and its share of global industrial output declining from 25% in 1750 to 2% in 1900.[12] Due to its ancient history as a trading zone and later its colonial status, colonial India remained economically integrated with the world, with high levels of trade, investment and migration.[14]

From 1850 to 1947, India's GDP in 1990 international dollar terms grew from $125.7 billion to $213.7 billion, a 70% increase, or an average annual growth rate of 0.55%. This was a higher rate of growth than during the Mughal era (1600–1700), when it had grown by 22%, an annual growth rate of 0.20%, or the longer period of mostly British East Indian company rule from 1700 to 1850 where it grew 39%, or 0.22% annually. However, by the end of British rule, India's economy represented a much smaller proportion of global GDP. In 1820, India's GDP was 16% of the global GDP. By 1870, it had fallen to 12%, and by 1947 to 4%. The

.

Indus Valley Civilization

Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600–1900 BCE

The

domesticated animals, made sharp tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin, and traded with other cities.[17] Evidence of well-laid streets, drainage systems and water supply in the valley's major cities, Dholavira, Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi, reveals their knowledge of urban planning
.

Ancient and medieval characteristics

Although ancient India had a significant urban population, much of India's population resided in villages, whose economies were largely isolated and self-sustaining.[citation needed] Agriculture was the predominant occupation and satisfied a village's food requirements while providing raw materials for hand-based industries such as textile, food processing and crafts. Besides farmers, people worked as barbers, carpenters, doctors (Ayurvedic practitioners), goldsmiths and weavers.[18]

Religion

Religion played an influential role in shaping economic activities.

Nasik and Puri, mostly centred around rivers, developed into centres of trade and commerce. Religious functions, festivals and the practice of taking a pilgrimage resulted in an early version of the hospitality industry.[19]

Economics in

Family business

In the

joint family system, members of a family pooled their resources to maintain the family and invest in business ventures. The system ensured younger members were trained and employed and that older and disabled members would be supported. The system prevented agricultural land from splitting with each generation, aiding yield from the benefits of scale. Such sanctions curbed rivalry in junior members and instilled a sense of obedience.[21]

Organisational entities

Along with the family- and individually-owned businesses, ancient India possessed other forms of engaging in collective activity, including the

sangha, nigama and Shreni. Nigama, pani and Shreni refer most often to economic organisations of merchants, craftspeople and artisans, and perhaps even para-military entities. In particular, the Shreni shared many similarities with modern corporations, which were used in India from around the 8th century BC until around the 10th century AD. The use of such entities in ancient India was widespread, including in virtually every kind of business, political and municipal activity.[23]

The Shreni was a separate legal entity that had the ability to hold property separately from its owners, construct its own rules for governing the behaviour of its members and for it to contract, sue and be sued in its own name. Ancient sources such as

Laws of Manu VIII and Chanakya's Arthashastra provided rules for lawsuits between two or more Shreni and some sources make reference to a government official (Bhandagarika) who worked as an arbitrator for disputes amongst Shreni from at least the 6th century BC onwards.[24]
Between 18 and 150 Shreni at various times in ancient India covered both trading and craft activities. This level of specialisation is indicative of a developed economy in which the Shreni played a critical role. Some Shreni had over 1,000 members.

The Shreni had a considerable degree of centralised management. The headman of the Shreni represented the interests of the Shreni in the king's court and in many business matters. The headman could bind the Shreni in contracts, set work conditions, often received higher compensation and was the administrative authority. The headman was often selected via an election by the members of the Shreni, and could also be removed from power by the general assembly. The headman often ran the enterprise with two to five executive officers, also elected by the assembly.[citation needed]

Coinage

Avanti
Mahajanapada, c. 400-312 BCE

Punch marked

coinage
.

Maurya Empire

Maurya Empire, c. 250 BC

During the Maurya Empire (c. 321–185 BC), important changes and developments affected the Indian economy. It was the first time most of India was unified under one ruler. With an empire in place, trade routes became more secure. The empire spent considerable resources building and maintaining roads. The improved infrastructure, combined with increased security, greater uniformity in measurements, and increasing usage of coins as currency, enhanced trade. During this time India's share is estimated to have been from 32% to 35% of the world economy.[26]

Medieval India

The number of coins in circulation declined and instead credit arrangements predominated. Contemporary Hindu law devote increasing attention to

Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.[28]

Trade

Gupta dynasty
, 5th century AD

Maritime trade was carried out extensively between

Mediterranean region and southeast Asia.[29] Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the 13th century AD, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast.[30]

Adi Granth in Punjabi at the Ateshgah
Atashgah is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745, west of the Caspian Sea
.

Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries.[31][32][33] During this period, Indian traders settled in Surakhani, a suburb of greater Baku, Azerbaijan. These traders built a Hindu temple, which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century.[34][35][36][37]

Further north, the

Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia.[38]

Delhi Sultanate

Before and during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD), Islam underlay a cosmopolitan civilization. It offered wide-ranging international networks, including social and economic networks. They spanned large parts of Afro-Eurasia, leading to escalating circulation of goods, people, technologies and ideas. While initially disruptive, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system.[39]

The period coincided with greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began adopting some mechanical technologies from the

worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the Indian subcontinent during the 13th and 14th centuries,[41] and is still used in India through to the present day.[42] The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin first appeared in the Indian subcontinent some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[43] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India during the Delhi Sultanate era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The increasing use of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin, led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production.[44]

GDP estimates

According to

economic historian Angus Maddison in Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history, the Indian subcontinent was the world's most productive region, from 1 AD to 1600.[45]

international dollars
Year ) GDP per capita
(1990 dollars)
Avg %
GDP growth
% of
world GDP (PPP
)
Population % of world population Period
1 33,750,000,000 450 32.0 70,000,000 30.03
Classical era
1000 33,750,000,000 450 0.0 28.0 72,500,000 27.15 Early medieval era
1500 60,500,000,000 550 0.117 24.35 79,000,000 18.0 Late medieval era
Alternative estimates: [46] [47] [48] [49]
1600 74,250,000,000 550 782 682 758 735 0.205 22.39 100,000,000 17.98 Early modern era
1700 90,750,000,000 550 719 622 697 676 0.201 24.43 165,000,000 27.36
1820 111,417,000,000 533 580 520 562 545 0.171 16.04 209,000,000 20.06
1870 134,882,000,000 533 526 526 510 494 0.975 12.14 253,000,000 19.83 Colonial era
1913 204,242,000,000 673 624 0.965 7.47 303,700,000 16.64
1940 265,455,000,000 686 636 0.976 5.9 386,800,000 16.82
1950 222,222,000,000 619 574 -1.794 4.17 359,000,000 14.11 Republic of India
1990 1,098,100,000,000 1,309 1,213 4.075 4.05 839,000,000 15.92

Mughal Empire

World map, c. 1700 CE

Economy in the Indian Subcontinent performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions.[50] Parthasarathi estimated that 28,000 tonnes of bullion (mainly from the New World) flowed into the Indian subcontinent between 1600 and 1800, equating to 30% of the world's production in the period.[51]

An estimate of the annual income of Emperor Akbar's treasury in 1600 is $90 million (in contrast to the tax take of Great Britain two hundred years later in 1800, which totaled $90 million). The Indian subcontinent region was estimated to be the 2nd largest in the world in economic terms in 1600, only below China.

During the time of Akbar, the

Louis XIV of France,[52] while controlling seventeen times the population
.

India was producing about 25% of global

industrial output throughout the 1st century AD to up until mid 18th century.[12] [53] The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system,[50] creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.[54] The Mughals adopted and standardized the rupee currency introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri.[55] The Mughals minted tens of millions of coins, with purity of at least 96%, without debasement until the 1720s.[56] The empire met global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products.[57]

Cities and towns experienced growth under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of

tertiary sectors,[62] a higher percentage in non-primary sectors than eastern Europe at the time where 65–75% have been estimated to have been engaged in agriculture in 1750.[63]

Agriculture

Indian

mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region.[64] Agriculture was advanced compared to Europe, exemplified by the earlier common use of the seed drill.[65]
The Mughal administration emphasized agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal Emperor Sher Shah Suri. Akbar adopted this and added more reforms.[66] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems, which produced much higher crop yields and harvests.[50]

One reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the

sugar cane, tree-crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, adding to rising market demand.[67] Under the zabt system, the Mughals conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the cultivated area. The Mughal state encouraged greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.[68]

According to evidence cited by economic historians

Mughal India was equal in 17th-century Europe and early 20th-century British India.[69]

Manufacturing

A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, painted 1789 CE

Until the 18th century, Mughal India was one of the most important

metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.[50] This growth of manufacturing has been seen as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[71]

European fashion, for example, became somewhat dependent on Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.[7] Demand for European goods in Mughal India was lighter, Europe's exports being largely limited to some woolens, ingots, glassware, mechanical clocks, weapons, particularly blades for Firangi swords, and a few luxury items.[73] The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of silver and to a lesser extent gold to Mughal India to pay for South Asian imports.[50][73] Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.[74][75]

The largest manufacturing industry was

protectionist policies, such as 1685-1774 Calico Acts, imposed tariffs on imported Indian textiles.[79][80]

Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, particularly in the Bengal Subah province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[81]

Bengal Subah

Bengal Subah was the Mughal' empire's wealthiest province, globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.[82] and exporting silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter and agricultural and industrial products. Bengal's capital city Dhaka was the empire's financial capital, with a population said to exceed one million.[83]

Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles.[7][77]

Post–Mughal Empire (1730–1818)

In the early half of the 18th century, Mughal Empire fell into decline, with Delhi sacked in

Nizams in the south, declared autonomy. However, the Mughal tax administration system was left largely intact with somewhat change with Tapan Raychaudhuri estimating revenue assessment actually increased to 50 percent or more, in contrast to China's 5 to 6 percent, to cover the cost of the wars.[84]
Similarly in the same period, Maddison gives the following estimates for the late Mughal economy's income distribution:

Late Mughal economy's income distribution (c. 1750)[85]
Social group % of population % of total income Income in terms of per-capita mean
Nobility, Zamindars 1 15 15
Merchants to Sweapers 17 37 2.2
Village Economy 72 45 0.6
Tribal Economy 10 3 0.3
Total 100 100 1

Among the post-Mughal states that emerged in the 18th century, the dominant economic powers were Maratha Empire, Bengal Subah (under the Nawabs of Bengal) and the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore.[86][87][88]

Jeffrey G. Williamson argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, and that British rule later caused further deindustrialization.[12][89] though Indian textiles maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles until the 19th century.[90] Prasannan Parthasarathi countered that several post-Mughal states did not decline, notably Bengal, Marathas and Mysore, which were comparable to Britain into the late 18th century.[91]

British rule

A year after the loss of the British

Nawab of the Bengal Subah, Siraj ud-Daulah, the Company won a decisive victory over the Nawab, and his French East India Company allies, at the Battle of Plassey, in 1757. The victory was achieved through agreeing to appoint the Nawab's military commander, Mir Jafar, as a Company friendly replacement, if he turned Siraj ud-Daulah's numerically superior forces on his masters household, and partitioned the Nawab's treasury, to compensate both parties. The Company regained, and fortified Calcutta, later gaining the right to collect tax revenues, on the Nawabs behalf, in the Bengal Subah, from 1765, a right to trade tax free, fortify the cities and factories it established, along with a right to establish local armies, turning the mercantile company, into the effective state apparatus, and later proxy for the British Crown. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857
, the British Crown would intervene and establish a formal colonial administration in the Company controlled territory.

British East India Company rule

Immediately following the East India Company gaining the right to collect revenue, on behalf of the Nawab of Bengal, the Company largely ceased a century and a half practice of importing gold and silver, and for more than a decade, which it had hitherto used to pay for the goods shipped back to Britain, the American colonies, East Asia, or on to African Slavers, to be bartered for Slaves in the Atlantic Slave trade:[78]

Export of bullion to India, by EIC (1708–1810)[92]
Years Bullion (£) Average per annum
1708/9-1733/4 12,189,147 420,315
1734/5-1759/60 15,239,115 586,119
1760/1-1765/6 842,381 140,396
1766/7-1771/2 968,289 161,381
1772/3-1775/6 72,911 18,227
1776/7-1784/5 156,106 17,345
1785/6-1792/3 4,476,207 559,525
1793/4-1809/10 8,988,165 528,715

In addition, as under Mughal rule, land and opium revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the company's administration, raise Sepoy armies, and fund wars in other parts of India, and later further afield, for example the Opium Wars, with additional capital raised, at typically 10%, from Banias money lenders.[93]

In the period 1760–1800, Bengal's money supply was greatly diminished. The closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of exchange rates and the standardization of coinage added to the economic downturn.[94]

During this period, the East India Company began tax administration reforms in a fast expanding empire spread over 250 million acres (1,000,000 km2), or 35 percent of Indian domain, with regional land, opium and salt taxes set, and collected. Indirect rule was established on protectorates and buffer states.

During the period 1780–1860 India changed from an exporter of processed goods paid for in

manufactured goods.[94]

The abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, from 1807, both eliminated a significant export market,[78] and encouraged Caribbean plantations to organize the import of South Asian labor.[95]

By 1820, India had fallen from the top rank to become the second-largest economy in the world, behind China.[96]

British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources.[97][90][98]

Textiles

In the 1750s fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Americas, Asia, and Africa.[78] With East India Company supplied cotton pieces comprising approximately 30%, by value, of the trade goods bartered for Slaves in the Anglo-African Triangular trade, and featuring in the French and Arab slave trades.[78]

East India Company buyers, along with independent British, Dutch and French East India company buyers, historically competed against each other, to place pre-paid advanced orders with Bengali middlemen for quantities of cotton pieces (Bolts of cloth approximately 18 yards by one yard in size), of a specified quality, and pattern, for delivery the following year.[99] The middlemen often failed to deliver the ordered quantity, or quality, to the contracted party, with pieces purchased with one companies money, from local weavers across the region, instead sold to a higher bidder.[99] Post the East India Company gaining administrative authority over Bengal, the Company forced the local merchants to fulfil its orders before servicing those of other parties, leading to protest, both from the local middlemen and competing East India Companies.[99] As they did they after the British East India Company started dictating the price of yarn sold within the region, which had historically accounted for the majority of the cost of a cotton piece.[99] The actions though not impacting local product, financially benefitted the Calcutta administration, over the local middlemen and the competing Companies engaged in the international trade.[99]

From the late 18th century British industry began to lobby their government to reintroduce the

duties. Starting in the early 19th century, British textiles began to appear in the Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from £5.2 million in 1850 to £18.4 million in 1896.[101]
Raw cotton was imported without tariffs to British factories, which manufactured yarn and textiles and sold them back to India, also without tariffs.

Estimated domestic Indian cotton consumption, production and imports & exports with Britain[47][102]
Year Cotton consumption (m yds) Domestic production (m yds) Domestic production (1871=100) Imports from Britain (m yds) Exports to Britain (pieces)
1600 946 946 72.4 0
1650 876 876 67.1 0
1700 970 970 74.3 0 868,095
1750 1,098 1,098 84 0 701,485
1801 1,178 1,178 90.2 0 1,037,440
1811 1,076 1,075 82.3 1 691,640
1821 1,046 1,026 78.6 20 758,397
1831 1,139 1,101 84.3 38 287,814
1841 1,407 1,266 97 141
1851 1,722 1,374 105.2 348
1861 1,989 1,475 112.9 514
1871 2,099 1,306 100 793

Indian historian, Rajat Kanta Ray, noted the relative decline of the Indian cotton textile industry started in the mid-1820s. The pace of its decline was, however, slow though steady at the beginning, but reached a crisis by 1860, when 563,000 textile workers lost their jobs. Ray estimates that the industry shrank by about 28% by 1850. However, it survived in the high-end and low-end domestic markets. Ray argued that British discriminatory policies undoubtedly depressed the industry's exports, but suggests its decay is better explained by technological innovations in Britain.[103] With Amiya Bagchi estimating the impact of the invention of the Spinning mule on the employment of handspinners:

Population of Gangetic Bihar dependent on different occupations %[104][105]
Occupation 1809–1813 1901
Spinners 10.3
Spinners / Weavers 2.3 1.3
Other Industrial 9.0 7.2
TOTAL 21.6 8.5

Indian textiles had maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century, when Britain eventually overtook India as the world's largest cotton textile manufacturer.[90] In 1811, Bengal was still a major exporter of cotton cloth to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. However, Bengali cotton exports declined over the course of the early 19th century, as British imports to Bengal increased, from 25% in 1811 to 93% in 1840.[106]

The second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India's exports.[100] By the end of the 1930s Indian textiles, and raw cotton, jute, hemp, and silk exports exceed $200 million, annually.[107]

Mining

Exploitable mineral deposits had started to be identified under the East India Company, with the first Coal mines, along with the Geological Survey of India established to identify and map the available resources in the territory.[108] A modern Iron and steel industry in India would be established in the Second half of the 19th century, with over 3 million tonnes of metals produced annually, and 25 million tonnes of coal, by the 1940s.[109][107]

Roads

The East India Companies' trade, and industry enabling

metalled road network was expanded from the 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi), constructed to 1850, to 350,000 kilometres (220,000 mi) by 1943.[110][111]

Indian ordnance factories

In 1787, a Gunpowder Factory was established at Ishapore; it began production in 1791, it is now the Rifle Factory Ishapore, beginning in 1904. In 1801, Gun & Shell Factory, Calcutta was established and the production began on 18 March 1802. There were eighteen ordnance factories before India became independent in 1947.[112]

Paper and publishing

Under the EIC the first Indian authored publications, printed, on locally produced paper, produced in locally established paper mills, appeared, from the Hicky's Bengal Gazette, to by the 1940s, a hundred thousand tonnes of paper was being produced, annually.[107]

British Raj

The formal dissolution of the Mughal Empire heralded a change in British treatment of Indian subjects. During the British Raj, massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government jobs and guaranteed pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil service for the first time. British cotton exports absorbed 55 percent of the Indian market by 1875.[113] In the 1850s the first cotton mills opened in Bombay, posing a challenge to the cottage-based home production system based on family labour.[114] Real GDP per capita grew 14 per cent during 1870–1906.

Fall of the rupee
Price of silver – Rate of Exchange: 1871–72 to 1892–93
Period Price of silver (in
troy ounce
)
Rupee exchange rate (in pence)
1871–1872 60+12 23+18
1875–1876 56+34 21+58
1879–1880 51+14 20
1883–1884 50+12 19+12
1887–1888 44+58 18+78
1890–1951 47+1116 18+18
1891–1892 45 16+34
1892–1893 39 15
Source: B.E. Dadachanji. History of Indian Currency and Exchange, 3rd enlarged ed.

(Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co, 1934), p. 15

During the American Civil War, the US Dollar halved in value to 1.54 by 1864. After its victory in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), Germany extracted a huge indemnity from France of £200,000,000, and then moved to join Britain on a gold monetary standard. France, the US, and other industrialising countries followed Germany in adopting gold after the Panic of 1873. Countries such as Japan that did not have the necessary access to gold or those, such as India, that were subject to imperial policies remained mostly on a silver standard. Silver-based and gold-based economies then diverged dramatically. The worst affected were silver economies that traded mainly with gold economies. Silver reserves increased in size, causing gold to rise in relative value. The impact on silver-based India was profound, given that most of its trade was with Britain and other gold-based countries. As the price of silver fell, so too did the exchange value of the rupee, when measured against sterling.

Agriculture and industry

The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1890 to 1910, in line with, and largely dependent on increased agricultural output, through schemes such as the Punjab Canal Colonies, Ganges canal, and cultivation of 4,000,000 acres of Assam jungle, which the growth of land under cultivation only keptIng pace with a population that doubled in the same period.[115][116] The result was little change in Real income levels. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level.

Entrepreneur Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and simple machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.[117]

In the 1890s, Tata launched plans to expand into the heavy industry using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but aware of Britain's declining position against the US and Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India so it promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell.[118]

By the end of the 1930s, Cotton, Jute, Peanuts, Tea, Tobacco, and Hides accounted for the majority of the $500+ million of agricultural derived, annual exports.[107]

Railways
Railway map of India in 1871 CE
Railway map of India in 1909 CE

British investors built a modern railway system in the late 19th century—it became the then fourth-largest in the world and was renowned for the quality of construction and service.[119] The government was supportive, realising its value for military use and for economic growth. The railways at first were privately owned and operated, and run by British administrators, engineers and skilled craftsmen. At first, only the unskilled workers were Indians.[120]

A plan for a rail system was first advanced in 1832. The first train ran from

Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions. A series of new rail companies were established, leading to rapid expansion.[122]

In 1853, the first passenger train service was inaugurated between

Calcutta.[124] Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers. The system was sturdily built. Several large princely states built their own rail systems and the network spread across India.[121] By 1900 India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, metre and narrow gauge networks.[125]

Headrick argues that both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers and even operating personnel, such as locomotive engineers. The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be submitted to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms.[citation needed] The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. Railway maintenance workshops existed in India, but were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives.[126] Christensen (1996) looked at colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service and private-versus-public interests. He concluded that making the railways dependent on the state hindered success, because railway expenses had to go through the same bureaucratic budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not respond to needs of the railways or their passengers.[127]

In 1951, forty-two separate railway systems, including thirty-two lines owned by the former Indian princely states, were amalgamated to form a single unit named the Indian Railways. The existing rail systems were abandoned in favor of zones in 1951 and a total of six zones came into being in 1952.[125]

Chemicals

The first refineries were established to produce kerosene, petrol, paints and over chemicals, locally, with production increasing once local deposits had been identified, to by the 1940s, sixty million gallons of petrochemicals were being produced annually.[107]

Economic impact of imperialism
This map shows the change in per capita GDP of India from 1820 CE to 2015 CE. All GDP numbers are inflation adjusted to 1990 International Geary-Khamis dollars. Data Source: Tables of Prof. Angus Maddison (2010). The per capita GDP over various years and population data can be downloaded in a spreadsheet from here. The 2015 estimate is retrieved from the International Monetary Fund.

Debate continues about the economic impact of British imperialism on India. The issue was first raised by

famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.[108] Ray also argued British India failed to offer the necessary encouragement, technology transfers, and protectionist frameworks, to permit British India to replicate Britain's own industrialisation, before its independence.[128]

British historian P. J. Marshall reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the Mughal era gave way to poverty and anarchy, arguing that the British takeover was not a sharp break with the past. British control was delegated largely through regional rulers and was sustained by a generally prosperous economy through the 18th century, except for the frequent, deadly famines. Marshall notes the British raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal tax rates. Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing the region, Marshall presents a British nationalist interpretation in which the British were not in full control, but instead were controllers in what was primarily an Indian-run society and in which their ability to keep power depended upon cooperation with Indian elites. Marshall admitted that much of his interpretation is rejected by many historians.[129]

Some historians point to company rule as a major factor in both India's

textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution as well as increasing British wealth, while contributing to deindustrialization in Bengal.[130][131][132]

Other

handloom sectors, with reduced demand and dipping employment;[135] the yarn output of the handloom industry, for example, declined from 419 million pounds in 1850 to 240 million pounds in 1900.[12]

There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India's share of world income collapsed from 22.6% in 1700, almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3% at that time, to as low as 3.8% in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, "the brightest jewel in the British Crown" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income.

Economic historians have investigated regional differences in taxation, and public good provision, across the British Raj, with a strong positive correlation found between education spending, and Literacy in India; with historic Provincial policies still impacting comparative economic development, productivity, and employment.[137]

Other economic historians debate the impact of

salt tax, on public revenues, public programs, growth and industrialisation, in the last quarter of the British Raj.[138][139][140]

India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods.[141]

Relative decline in productivity
The global contribution to world's GDP by major economies from 1 CE to 2003 CE according to Angus Maddison's estimates.[142] Up until the early 18th century, China and India were the two largest economies by GDP output. (** X axis of graph has non-linear scale which underestimates the dominance of India and China).

India accounted for 25% of the world's industrial output in 1750, declining to 2% of the world's industrial output in 1900.[12] Britain replaced India as the world's largest textile manufacturer in the 19th century.[90] In terms of urbanization, Mughal India had a higher percentage of its population (15%) living in urban centres in 1600 than British India did in the 19th century.[58]

Productivity comparison

Stephen Broadberry, Johann Custodis, and Bishnupriya Gupta, in 2014, offered the following comparative estimates for:

Indian and UK populations and GDP (PPP) per capita, between 1600 and 1871, in terms of 1990 international dollars.[47]
Year India ($) UK ($) Ratio (%) India population (m) UK population (m)
1600 682 1,123 61.5 142 5
1650 638 1,100 58.8 142 5.8
1700 622 1,563 40.3 164 8.8
1750 576 1,710 34.2 190 9.2
1801 569 2,080 27.7 207 16.3
1851 556 2,997 18.8 232 27.5
1871 526 3,657 14.5 256 31.6

Several economic historians claimed that in the 18th century real wages were falling in India, and were "far below European levels".[143] This has been disputed by others, who argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the late 18th century, largely as a result of "globalization forces".[12]

Clingingsmith and Williamson[104] argue India deindustrialized, in the period between 1750 and 1860, due to two very different causes, before reindustrialization. Between 1750 and 1810, they suggest the loss of Mughal hegemony allowed new despotic rulers to revenue farm their conquered populations, seeing tax and rent demands increase to 50% of production, compared to the 5–6% extracted in China during the period, and levied largely to fund regional warfare. Combined with the use of labour and livestock for martial purposes, grain and textile prices were driven up, along with nominal wages, as the populous attempted to meet the demands, reducing the competitiveness of Indian handicrafts, and impacting the regional textile trade. Then from 1810 to 1860, the expansion of the British factory system drove down the relative price of textiles worldwide, through productivity advances, a trend that was magnified in India as the concurrent transport revolution dramatically reduced transportation costs, and in a sub-continent that had not seen metalled roads, the introduction of mechanical transport exposed once protected markets to global competition, hitting artisanal manufacture, but stabilizing the agricultural sector.

Angus Maddison states:[144]

This was a shattering blow to manufacturers of fine muslins, jewellery, luxury clothing and footwear, decorative swords and weapons. My own guess would be that the home market for these goods was about 5 percent of Moghul national income and the export market for textiles probably another 1.5 percent.

Absence of industrialisation

Historians have questioned why India failed to industrialise. As the global cotton industry underwent a technological revolution in the 18th century, while Indian industry stagnated after adopting the Flying shuttle, and industrialisation began only in the late 19th century. Several historians have suggested that this was because India was still a largely agricultural nation with low Commodity money wage levels, arguing that nominal wages were high in Britain so cotton producers had the incentive to invent and purchase expensive new labour-saving technologies, and that wages levels were low in India so producers preferred to increase output by hiring more workers rather than investing in technology.[145]

Colonial boom

During 1906–50, real GDP per capita of India fell 5.7 per cent while that of the UK grew 45 per cent and the USA grew 111 per cent.

telegraphs and a modern legal system. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an impetus for growing cash crops for export and for raw materials for Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tea.[146][107]

In 1928, 48% of the cotton spindles installed outside Europe, North America and Japan were in India (Dunn and Hardy, 1931: 25). In 1935, 50% of the steel produced outside Europe, North America and Japan was produced in India (BKS, 1950: 265–74). The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), headed by Dorabji Tata, opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar (present day in Jharkhand) in 1908. It became the leading iron and steel producer in India, with 120,000 employees in 1945.[147] TISCO became an India's symbol of technical skill, managerial competence, entrepreneurial flair, and high pay for industrial workers.[148]

During the

First World War, the railways were used to transport troops and grains to Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, Mesopotamia and East Africa.[citation needed] With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became much more difficult; critical workers entered the army; workshops were converted to make munitions; the locomotives, rolling stock, and track of some entire lines were shipped to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the sudden increase in demand.[149] By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated badly.[150][125] In the Second World War the railway workshops were again converted into munitions workshops.[151]

Inflation emerged a national issue during the World Wars with negligible rise in real GDP. Non-royal private wealth was encouraged by colonial administrations during these times. Houses of Birla and Sahu Jain began to challenge the Houses of Martin Burn, Bird Heilgers and Andrew Yule. About one-ninth of the national population were urban by 1925.

Economic bust

The first economic boom cycle ended with the Great Depression in India. The colonial administration did little to alleviate debt stress.[152] The worst consequences involved deflation, which increased the burden of the debt on villagers.[153] Total economic output did not decline between 1929 and 1934. The worst-hit sector was jute, based in Bengal, which was an important element in overseas trade; it had prospered in the 1920s but prices dropped in the 1930s.[154] Employment also decline, while agriculture and small-scale industry exhibited gains.[155] The most successful new industry was sugar, which had meteoric growth in the 1930s.[156][157]

Gold-Silver ratio quintupled to 100-1 during 1920-40 triggering a sterling crisis worse than the 1890s. The Bank of England records the Indian central bank held a positive balance of £1,160 million on 14 July 1947, and that British India maintained a trade surplus, with the United Kingdom, for the duration of the British Raj eg.[158]

India: Sources of Sterling 1939–1946 (£ million)
Period Balance of trade and net invisibles War expenditure Other sources Total
September 1939 – March 1940 65 2 13 80
1940–41 57 30 6 93
1941–42 73 146 6 225
1942–43 92 244 7 343
1943–44 105 289 3 397
1944–45 92 308 2 402
1945–46 70 282 3 355
Total 554 1,301 40 1,895

Source: Indian sterling balances, p. 2, 15 Jan.1.1947, Bank of England (BoE), OV56/55.

Studies of the comparative tax burdens in the British Empire, by days of labour required to meet the per capita tax bill, income tax rates, and gross colonial revenues indicate the tax burden in India required approximately half the number of days of labour to meet, as that of the UK, and a third that of some settler colonies, such as New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and Hong Kong, which some economic historians speculate deprived the Colonial Indian administration of the revenue necessary to provide the public goods to accelerate economic development, literacy, and industrialisation, as experienced elsewhere in the empire.[159][160]

The newly independent but weak Union government's treasury reported annual revenue of £334 million in 1950. In contrast,

Nizam Asaf Jah VII of Hyderabad State was widely reported to have a fortune of almost £668 million then.[161] About one-sixth of the national population were urban by 1950.[162]
A US Dollar was exchanged at 4.79 rupees.

Karl Marx, writing in 1857, suggested the Nominal (Silver) per capita income of East India Company, in 1854, was approximately 1:12 that of the UK, as was the Nominal per capita tax burden 1:12 of the UK, 1:10 of France, and 1:5 of Prussia.[163] Explaining why the EIC administration was perpetually running local deficits, and in need to borrow monies in India, to fund the administration.[164]

Economic historians such as Prasannan Parthasarathi have criticized these estimates,

secondary sector contributed a higher percentage to the Mughal economy (18.2%) than it did to the economy of early 20th-century British India (11.2%).[167]

According to economic historian

US dollars ($804 in 1990 dollars) and for the non-Western world to be $188 in 1960 dollars ($830 in 1990 dollars), exceeded by both China and India.[170] Other estimates he gives include $150–190 for England in 1700 and $160–210 for India in 1800.[171] Bairoch estimated that it was only after 1800 that Western European per-capita income pulled ahead.[172] Others such as Andre Gunder Frank, Robert A. Denemark, Kenneth Pomeranz and Amiya Kumar Bagchi also criticised estimates that showed low per-capita income and GDP growth rates in Asia (especially China and India) prior to the 19th century, pointing to later research that found significantly higher per-capita income and growth rates in China and India during that period.[173]

Republic of India

Socialist period

Before independence a large share of tax revenue was generated by the land tax. Thereafter land taxes steadily declined as a share of revenues.[174]

The economic problems inherited at independence were exacerbated by the costs associated with the partition, which had resulted in about 2 to 4 million refugees fleeing past each other across the new borders between India and Pakistan. Refugee settlement was a considerable economic strain. Partition divided India into complementary economic zones. Under the British, jute and cotton were grown in the eastern part of Bengal (East Pakistan, after 1971, Bangladesh), but processing took place mostly in the western part of Bengal, which became the Indian state of West Bengal. As a result, after independence India had to convert land previously used for food production to cultivate cotton and jute.[175]

Growth continued in the 1950s, the rate of growth was less positive than India's politicians expected.[176]

Toward the end of Nehru's term as prime minister, India experienced serious food shortages.[citation needed]

Beginning in 1950, India faced

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 led the US and other countries friendly towards Pakistan to withdraw foreign aid to India, which necessitated devaluation. India was told it had to liberalise trade before aid would resume. The response was the politically unpopular step of devaluation accompanied by liberalisation. Defence spending in 1965/1966 was 24.06% of expenditure, the highest in the period from 1965 to 1989. Exacerbated by the drought of 1965/1966, the devaluation was severe. GDP per capita grew 33% in the 1960s, reaching a peak growth of 142% in the 1970s, before decelerating to 41% in the 1980s and 20% in the 1990s.[177]

From FY 1951 to FY 1979, the economy grew at an average rate of about 3.1 percent a year, or at an annual rate of 1.0 percent per capita.[178] During this period, industry grew at an average rate of 4.5 per cent a year, compared with 3 per cent for agriculture.[179][180] Real GDP per capita grew 59 per cent during 1950–77.

Prime minister Indira Gandhi proclaimed a national emergency and suspended the Constitution in 1975. About one-fifth of the national population were urban by 1975.[181]

Steel

Prime Minister

Nehru was a believer in socialism and decided that India needed maximum steel production. He, therefore, formed a government-owned company, Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) and set up three steel plants in the 1950s.[182]

Heavy Industry

India was close to Soviet Union, which provided technology assistance and transfer in the field of heavy industries such as Oil & Gas, Nuclear, Mining, Machinery, Railways, Heavy equipment, Electrical equipment etc.

Economic bust

The second economic boom cycle ended with the 1979 oil crisis that triggered fiscal deficits through the 1980s. In 1975 India's GDP (in 1990 US dollars) was $545 billion, $1,561 billion in the USSR, $1,266 billion in Japan, and $3,517 billion in the US. Real GDP per capita grew 51 per cent during 1977–94.[183]

Capitalist Boom

Economic liberalisation in India was initiated in 1991 by Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his then-Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh.[184][185][186]

Economic liberalisation in India since the 1990s led to paradigm shift in growth and structure of national income. Real GDP per capita grew 142 per cent during 1994–2013.

About one-fourth of the national population was urban by 2000.[187]

business process services are very lightly regulated.[15]

The Indian steel industry began expanding into Europe in the 21st century. In January 2007 India's Tata bought European steel maker

Mittal Steel (based in London but with Indian management) acquired Arcelor for $34.3 billion to become the world's biggest steel maker, ArcelorMittal, with 10% of world output.[188]

The government started the Golden Quadrilateral road network connecting Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata with various Indian regions. The project, completed in January 2012, was the most ambitious infrastructure project of independent India.[189][190]

Economic bust
India bonds
  30 year
  10 year
  2 year
  1 year
  3 month

The coronavirus pandemic led to a recession in the Indian economy. Real GDP per capita grew 39 per cent during 2013–21.

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is converted at 9.46 rupees. Despite continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 2009, the Indian economy was mired in bureaucratic hurdles.

India GDP Growth (at constant 2004–05 price)

[191]

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Bibliography

Pre 1947

Gazetteers and statistics

Since 1947

External links