Egypt–Mesopotamia relations

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Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
)
A map of the Ancient Near East, showing a connection between Egypt and Mesopotamia
Possible Mesopotamia–Egypt trade routes from the 4th millennium BCE.[1][2]

Egypt–Mesopotamia relations were the relations between the civilizations of

Gerzean culture of Prehistoric Egypt (circa 3500–3200 BCE), and constituted a largely one way body of influences from Mesopotamia into Egypt.[3][4]

Prior to a specific Mesopotamian influence there had already been a longstanding influence from

Proto-Afroasiatic
language into the region.

Mesopotamian influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in architecture, in technology, weaponry, in imported products, religious imagery, in agriculture and livestock, in genetic input, and also in the likely transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt[4] and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.[2]

Influences on Egyptian trade and art (3500–3200 BCE)

See also: Gerzeh culture and Uruk period
Mesopotamian king on Egyptian prehistoric knife
(3300–3200 BCE)
Louvre Museum[5]
Mesopotamian king as Master of Animals on the top of the handle. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt at an early date, in an example of ancient Egypt–Mesopotamia relations, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the Uruk period.[5][6][7]

There was generally a high-level of trade between

Dynasty I periods.[8]

Designs and objects

Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of

Asia Minor.[12]

Mesopotamian-style pottery in Egypt (3500 BCE)

Evolution of Egyptian prehistoric pottery styles, from Naqada I to Naqada II and Naqada III, with Mesopotamian-style Naqada II straight-spouted jars circa 3500 BCE.[13]

Red-slipped spouted pottery items dating to around 3500 BCE (

Naqada II C/D), which were probably used for pouring water, beer or wine, suggest that Egypt was in contact with and being influenced by Mesopotamia around that time.[13] This type of pottery was manufactured in Egypt, with Egyptian clay, but its shape, particularly the spout, is certainly Mesopotamian in origin.[13] Such vessels were new and rare in pre-Dynastic Egypt, but had been commonly manufactured in the Mesopotamian cities of Nippur and Uruk for centuries.[13] This indicated that Egyptians were familiar with Mesopotamian types of pottery.[13]
The discovery of these vessels initially encouraged the development of the dynastic race theory, according to which Mesopotamians would have established the first Pharaonic line, but is now considered by many scholars to be simply indicative of cultural influence and borrowings circa 3500 BCE, although there is an established gene flow from Mesopotamia and West Asia into Egypt .[13]

Spouted jars of Mesopotamian design start to appear in Egypt in the

Naqada II period.[7] Various Uruk pottery vases and containers have been found in Egypt in Naqada contexts, confirming that Mesopotamian finished goods were imported into Egypt, although the past contents of the jars have not been determined yet.[14] Scientific analysis of ancient wine jars in Abydos has shown there was some high-volume wine trade with the Levant and Mesopotamia during this period.[15]

Adoption of Mesopotamian-style maceheads

macehead 4000–3400 BCE
Egyptian macehead, 3500–3300 BCE

Egyptians used traditional disk-shaped

maceheads during the early phase of Naqada culture, circa 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, the disk-shaped macehead was replaced by the militarily superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead as seen on the Narmer Palette.[16] The Mesopotamian macehead was much heavier with a wider impact surface, and was capable of giving much more damaging blows than the original Egyptian disk-shaped macehead.[16]

Cylinder seals

cylinder Seal, 3100–2900 BCE
Egyptian cylinder seal First or Second Dynasty, 3100–2686 BCE

It is generally thought that

Gerzean context of Naqada II, in Naqada and Hiw, attesting to the expansion of the Mesopotamian Jemdet Nasr culture as far as Egypt at the end of the 4th millennium BCE.[18][17]

In Egypt, cylinder seals suddenly appear without any local antecedents from around Naqada II c-d (3500–3300 BCE).

accounting systems and seals going back as early as the early 7th millennium BCE in Mesopotamia.[19] The earliest Egyptian cylinder seals are clearly similar to earlier and contemporary Uruk seals down to Naqada II-d (circa 3300 BCE), and may even have been manufactured by Mesopotamian craftsmen and subsequently sold to the Egyptians, but they start to diverge from circa 3300 BCE to become more Egyptian in character.[19]

Cylinder seals were made in Egypt as late as the

Second Intermediate Period, but they were essentially replaced by scarabs from the time of the Middle Kingdom.[17]

Other objects and designs

Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia as part of the established Mesopotamian trade network with South and Central Asia, and from there sold on to Egypt by the Mesopotamians.[20][14]

In addition, Egyptian objects were created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.

Semainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.[22] The first man/animal composite creatures in Egypt were directly copied from earlier Mesopotamian designs.[23] It is also considered as certain that the Egyptians adopted from Mesopotamia the practice of marking the sealing of jars with engraved cylinder seals for informational purposes.[24]

Temples and pyramids

Recessed niches and false doors
Wall plaque showing libation scene from Ur, Iraq, 2500 BCE. British Museum (libation detail).jpg
Naked devotee offering libations to a temple of Inanna, Ur, c. 2500 BCE.[25]
Tomb chapel false door, circa 2450 BCE, Egypt.

Egyptian architecture also was influenced, as it adopted various elements of earlier Mesopotamian temple and civic architecture.[26]

Recessed niches in particular, which are characteristic of Mesopotamian temple architecture, were adopted for the design of false doors in the tombs of the First Dynasty and Second Dynasty, from the time of the Naqada III period (circa 3000 BCE).[26][27] It is unknown if the transfer of this design was the result of Mesopotamian builders and architects in Egypt, or if temple designs on imported Mesopotamian seals may have been a sufficient source of inspiration for Egyptian architects to manage themselves.[26]

The design of the

Pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara) dates to circa 2600 BCE, well over two thousand years younger than Mesopotamian ziggurats/step pyramids.[28] This again strongly suggests early cultural and technological influence on Egypt by Mesopotamia.[28]

Ziggurats and Egyptian pyramids
The original Mesopotamian Anu ziggurat dates to around 4000 BCE
The Pyramid of Djoser, the first Egyptian pyramid, dates circa 2670–2650 BCE
The original pyramidal structure, the Mesopotamian "Anu Ziggurat" dates to around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.[29] The design of the ziggurat was probably a precursor to that of the Egyptian pyramids, the earliest of which dates to circa 2600 BCE.[28]

Transmission

Serpopard design in Mesopotamia and Egypt
Uruk cylinder seal with serpopard design. The serpopard design of Egyptian palettes was adopted from Mesopotamian serpopard designs.[9]
Egyptian Narmer Palette with serpopard design.

The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but direct Egyptian contact with

Glyptic art also seems to have played a key role, through the circulation of decorated cylinder seals across the Levant, a common hinterland of both empires, particularly Mesopotamia.[30]

The intensity of the exchanges suggest however that the contacts between Egypt and Mesopotamia were often direct, rather than merely through middlemen or through trade.[2] Uruk had known colonial outposts of as far as Habuba Kabira, in modern Syria, insuring their presence in the Levant.[31] Numerous Uruk cylinder seals have also been uncovered there.[31] There have been suggestions that Uruk may have had a colonial outpost and a form of colonial presence in northern Egypt.[31] The site of Buto in particular was suggested, but it has been rejected as a possible candidate.[26]

The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of wadis which lead to the Red Sea may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though Byblian trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then be taken to the Red Sea).[32] Also, it is considered unlikely that something as complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and a possibly significant contingent of Mesopotamian migrants or settlers is often suspected.[1]

These early contacts probably acted as a sort of catalyst for the development of Egyptian culture, particularly in respect to the inception of writing, the codification of royal and vernacular imagery and architectural innovations.[2]

  • Egyptian palettes, such as the Narmer Palette (3200–3000 BC), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular the sauropod design of Uruk.[33]
    Egyptian palettes, such as the Narmer Palette (3200–3000 BC), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular the sauropod design of Uruk.[33]
  • Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650 –3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III.
    Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650 –3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III.
  • Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BC. The lapis lazuli material is thought to have been imported through Mesopotamia from Afghanistan. Ashmolean.[20][14]
    Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BC. The
    Ashmolean.[20][14]
  • Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders, Naqada II circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.[34][35][36]
    Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders,
    Naqada II circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.[34][35][36]

Importance of local Egyptian developments

A rare Naqada III Egyptian Cosmetic palette found beyond Egypt, in Ashkelon or Gaza, end of 4th millennium, Louvre Museum AO 5359.[37]

While there is clear evidence the

Naqada II culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, there is also a commonly held view that many of the achievements of the later First Dynasty were also the result of a long period of indigenous cultural and political development.[38] Such developments are much older than the Naqada II period,[39] the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,[40] and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.[41]

Although there are many examples of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt in the 4th millennium BCE, the reverse is not true, and there are no traces of Egyptian influence in Mesopotamia at any time, clearly indicating a one way flow of ideas.

Naqada period object have been found beyond Egypt, and generally in its vicinity, such as a rare Naqada III Egyptian cosmetic palette in the shape of a fish, of the end of 4th millennium BCE, found in Ashkelon or Gaza.[43]

Early Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie were proponents of the Dynastic race theory which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin,[44] but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.[45][46]

The current position of modern scholarship is that the Egyptian civilization was an indigenous Nile Valley development and that the archaeological evidence "strongly supports an African origin"[47] of the ancient Egyptians.[45][48][49][50]

Development of writing (3500–3200 BCE)

Main article: History of writing
Mesopotamian script.[53]

It is generally thought that

Sumerian script, and were probably invented under the influence of the latter",[54] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".[55][56] The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.[2]

Standard reconstructions of the

development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the strong suggestion the former influenced the latter.[51]

There is however a lack of direct evidence that Mesopotamian writing influenced Egyptian form, and "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".[57] Some scholars point out that "a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[58] Since the 1990s, the discovery of glyphs on clay tags at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one,[59][60][61] although perhaps tellingly, Egyptian writing does make a 'sudden' appearance at that time with no antecedents or precursors, while on the contrary Mesopotamia already had a long evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE, followed by Proto-Cuneiform.[62][15] Pittman proposes that the Abydos clay tags are almost identical to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[63]

Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.

Western Asian contact was made, further vititates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".[65]

  • Tablet with Mesopotamian proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BC), Uruk III.
    Tablet with Mesopotamian proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BC), Uruk III.
  • Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for Goddess Inanna. Uruk circa 3000 BC. Louvre Museum AO 7702
    Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for Goddess Inanna. Uruk circa 3000 BC. Louvre Museum AO 7702
  • Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, Egypt, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC.[15][62] They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[66]
    Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, Egypt, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC.[15][62] They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[66]
  • Labels with some of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs from the tomb of Egyptian king Menes (3200–3000 BC)
    Labels with some of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs from the tomb of Egyptian king Menes (3200–3000 BC)
  • Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BC)
    Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BC)

2017 DNA Genome Study

See also:
DNA history of Egypt and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
PCA and Admixture analysis of Ancient Egyptian samples and other modern and ancient populations.[67]
Shared drift analysis of ancient Egyptian mummies with other ancient and modern populations. The affinity is strongest (in red) with ancient populations of the Near East.

A 2017 study of the

Western Asia and Anatolia.[68][69] The study was made on mummies of Abusir el-Meleq, near El Fayum, which was inhabited from at least 3250 BCE until about 700 CE.[70] A shared drift analysis of the ancient Egyptian mummies is highest with ancient populations from the Levant and Anatolia, and to a lesser extent modern populations from the Near East and the Levant.[69] the Admixture analysis and PCA show the most affinity to ancient and modern middle eastern populations.[70]

Overall the mummies studied were closer genetically to near easterners than the modern Egyptian or indeed nearby

Roman period.[68][69]

The data suggest a very high level of genetic input from

Neolithic Era: "Our data seem to indicate close admixture and affinity at a much earlier date, which is unsurprising given the long and complex connections between Egypt and the Middle East. These connections date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, colonisation, immigration, invasion and deportation".[71][69]

The study stated that "our genetic time transect suggests genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman populations of Abusir el-Meleq, indicating that foreign rule impacted the [native] population only to a very limited degree at the genetic level."

The study's authors cautioned that the mummies may be unrepresentative of the Ancient Egyptian population as a whole.[72]

Gourdine, Anselin and Keita criticised the methodology of the Scheunemann et al. study and argued that the Sub-Saharan "genetic affinities" may be attributed to "early settlers" and "the relevant Sub-Saharan genetic markers" do not correspond with the geography of known trade routes".[73]

In 2022, Danielle Candelora noted several limitations with the 2017 Scheunemann et al. study such as its “untested sampling methods, small sample size and problematic comparative data” which she argued had been misused to legitimise racist conceptions of Ancient Egypt with “scientific evidence”[74]

Because the 2017 study only sampled from a single site at Abusir el-Meleq, Scheunemann et al.(2022) carried out a follow-up study by collecting samples from six different excavation sites along the entire length of the Nile Valley, spanning 4000 years of Egyptian history. 81 samples were collected from 17 mummies and 14 skeletal remains, and 18 high quality mitochondrial genomes were reconstructed from 10 individuals. The authors argued the analyzed mitochondrial genomes supported the results from the earlier study at Abusir el-Meleq.[75]

In 2023,

biological anthropological evidence which determined the founding locales of Ancient Egypt to be the descendants of longtime populations in Northeastern Africa such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa.[76] Ehret also criticised the study for asserting that there was “no sub-Saharan” component in the Egyptian population. Ehret cited other genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker “M35 /215” Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant.[77]

Egyptian influence on Mesopotamian art

Hegemonistic kingship
Narmer Palette (circa 3000 BCE). The Egyptian symbol of the king smiting his enemies with a mace was adopted centuries later by the dynasts of Mesopotamia.[78]
Bare-chested Sumerian king Eannatum smiting an enemy with a mace. The dynastic bird also shares the same position. Stele of the Vultures (circa 2500–2400 BCE).[78]

After this early period of exchange, and the direct introduction of Mesopotamian components into Egyptian culture, Egypt soon started to assert its own style from the

Narmer palette being seen as a turning point.[79]

Egypt seems to have provided some artistic feedback to Mesopotamia at the time of the

Narmer palette, and were then adopted centuries later (possibly from Egypt) by Mesopotamian rulers Eannatum and Sargon of Akkad.[78] This depiction appears to be part of an artistic system to promote "hegemonistic kingship".[78] Another example is the usage of decorated mace heads as a symbol of kingship.[78]

There is also a possibility that the depictions of the Mesopotamian king with a muscular, naked, upper body fighting his enemies in a quadrangular posture, as seen in the

Old Kingdom.[80]

Later periods

Trade of Indus goods through Mesopotamia

Indus Valley civilization etched carnelian beads.
Bead excavated in Egypt, circa 1800 BCE.

Etched carnelian beads

Main article: Etched carnelian beads

Rare

Indus-Mesopotamia relations from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Examples of etched carnelian beads found in Egypt typically date to the Late Middle Kingdom (c. 1800 BCE). They were found in tombs and represented luxury items, often as the centerpiece of jewelry.[81][82]

Hyksos period

West Asiatic procession to Egypt (c.1900 BCE)
12th-dynasty official Khnumhotep II, at Beni Hasan (circa 1900 BC).[83][84][85]

Egypt records various exchanges with Semitic West Asian foreigners from around 1900 BCE, as in the paintings of the tomb of

Beni Hassan
.

From circa 1650 BCE, the

Gandash.[88][89][90]

Exchanges would again flourish between the two cultures from the period of the

Hurrian-Mitanni empires.[citation needed] Assyria eventually annexed much of the territory of the former, and completely destroyed the latter, and the growing power of Assyria may have been a factor in Egypt withdrawing from their Levantine colonies, which were subsequently annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire which came to dominate Western Asia and the East Mediterranean. In the 11th century BC the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala is known to have received a tribute of exotic animals and plants from Egypt for his Zoological and Botanical gardens in Assur.[citation needed
]

Neo-Assyrian Empire

Assyrian cuneiform
script with Egyptian deities.
Main article: Assyrian conquest of Egypt

In the last phase of historic exchanges during the

Kushite Empire, the 25th Dynasty of Egypt, which had provoked Assyria by repeatedly but unsuccessfully attempting to gain an influence in the Southern Levant and Northern Arabian Peninsula by instigating and supporting rebellions by Israelites, Judeans, Moabites, Edomites, Phoenicians and Arabs against Assyrian rule during the reigns of Shalmaneser IV, Sargon II and Sennacherib
.

The Egyptian 26th Dynasty had been installed in 663 BC as native puppet rulers by the Assyrians after the destruction and deportation of the foreign Nubians of the 25th Dynasty by king Esarhaddon and then came under the dominion of his successors Ashurbanipal. However, during the fall of the Neo Assyrian Empire between 612 and 599 BC, Egypt attempted to aid its former masters probably due to the fear that without a strong Assyrian buffer they too would be overrun, having already been raided by marauding Scythians. As a result, Egypt came into conflict with Assyria's fellow Mesopotamian state of Babylonia, which along with the Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, Cimmerians and Scythians, amongst others, were fighting to throw off Assyrian rule, and Pharaoh Necho II fought alongside the last Assyrian emperor Ashur-uballit II (612-c.605 BC) against Nabopolassar, Cyaxares and their allies for a time. After the Assyrian Empire fell, Egypt engaged in a number of conflicts with Babylonia during the late 7th and early 6th century BC in the Levant, before being driven from the region by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia.

Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire, though Iranic and not Mesopotamian, was heavily influenced by Mesopotamia in its art, architecture, written script and civil administration, the Persians having previously been subjects of Assyria for centuries, invaded Egypt and established satrapies, founding the Achaemenid Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (525–404 BCE) and Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (343–332 BCE).

See also

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  75. ^ "Human mitochondrial haplogroups and ancient DNA preservation across Egyptian history (Urban et al. 2021)" (PDF). ISBA9, 9th International Symposium on Biomolecular Archaeology, p.126. 2021. In a previous study, we assessed the genetic history of a single site: Abusir el-Meleq from 1388 BCE to 426 CE. We now focus on widening the geographic scope to give a general overview of the population genetic background, focusing on mitochondrial haplogroups present among the whole Egyptian Nile River Valley. We collected 81 tooth, hair, bone, and soft tissue samples from 14 mummies and 17 skeletal remains. The samples span approximately 4000 years of Egyptian history and originate from six different excavation sites covering the whole length of the Egyptian Nile River Valley. NGS 127 based ancient DNA 8 were applied to reconstruct 18 high-quality mitochondrial genomes from 10 different individuals. The determined mitochondrial haplogroups match the results from our Abusir el-Meleq study.
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  84. ^ Bard 2015, p. 188.
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  90. ^ "Statue British Museum". The British Museum.
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  92. ^ "The Late period (664–332 BCE)".
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