Egypt in the Middle Ages

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Following the

Umayyad Caliphs in Damascus, but in 747 the Umayyads were overthrown. Throughout Islamic rule, Askar was named the capital and housed the ruling administration.[1] The conquest led to two separate provinces all under one ruler: Upper and Lower Egypt. These two very distinct regions were governed by the military and followed the demands handed down by the governor of Egypt and imposed by the heads of their communities.[1]

Fatimids
. This dynasty would begin to fade after the death of their last ruler in 1171.

In 1174, Egypt came under the rule of the

Eyālet-i Mıṣr province
.

Early Islamic period

Muslim conquest of Egypt

Main article:
Muslim conquest of Egypt
The age of the first few caliphs
  Muhammad, 622–632
  Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
  Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

In 639 an army of some 4,000 men were sent against Egypt by the second caliph,

Constans II
was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

Administration of early Islamic Egypt

Following the first surrender of Alexandria, Amr chose a new site to settle his men, near the location of the Byzantine fortress of

ṣāḥib al-shurṭa), responsible for internal security and for commanding the jund (army).[7]

The main pillar of the early Muslim rule and control in the country was the military force, or jund, staffed by the Arab settlers. These were initially the men who had followed Amr and participated in the conquest.[8] The followers of Amr were mostly drawn from Yamani (south Arabian) tribes, rather than the northern Arab (Qays i) tribes, who were scarcely represented in the province; it was they who dominated the country's affairs for the first two centuries of Muslim rule.[3] Initially, they numbered 15,500, but their numbers grew through emigration in the subsequent decades. By the time of Caliph Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), the number of men registered in the army list (diwān al-jund) and entitled an annual pay (ʿaṭāʾ) reached 40,000. Jealous of their privileges and status, which entitled them to a share of the local revenue, the members of the jund then virtually closed off the register to new entries.[9][8] It was only after the losses of the Second Fitna that the registers were updated, and occasionally, governors would add soldiers en masse to the lists as a means to garner political support.[10]

In return for a very small tribute of money (0.5% Jizya Tax on some free men) and food for the troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs.

Conversions of

Copts to Islam were initially rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part of the first Islamic century. The old division of the country into districts (nomoi) was maintained, and to the inhabitants of these districts demands were directly addressed by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the community—ordinarily a Copt but in some cases a Muslim Egyptian
—was responsible for compliance with the demand.

Umayyad period

During the

Muslim conquest of North Africa; it was he who appointed Musa ibn Nusayr in his post as governor of Ifriqiya.[14] Abd al-Aziz hoped to be succeeded by his son, but when he died, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–695) sent his own son, Abdallah, as governor in a move to reassert control and prevent the country from becoming a hereditary domain.[15]

Arabic language had been steadily gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official language of the government. Egyptian Arabic
, the modern Arabic accent and dialect of Egypt, began to form. Other revolts of the Copts are recorded for the years 739 and 750, the last year of Umayyad domination. The outbreaks in all cases are attributed to increased taxation.

Abbasid period

The

Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad
, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government.

A major change came in 834, when Caliph

Fatimids in the 10th century.[23]

Tulunid period

Spiral Minaret of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo

In 868, Caliph

Mamluk Sultanate. [25][26][27]

The first years of Ibn Tulun's governorship were dominated by his power struggle with the powerful head of the fiscal administration, the

Nile floods, resulted in a major increase in revenue. By the end of his reign, Ibn Tulun had accumulated a reserve of ten million dinars.[35]

Ibn Tulun's rise was facilitated by the feebleness of the Abbasid government, threatened by the rise of the

Khumarawayh, as his heir.[37] In 882, Ibn Tulun came close to having Egypt become the new centre of the Caliphate, when al-Mu'tamid tried to flee to his domains. In the event, however, the Caliph was overtaken and brought him back to Samarra (February 883) and under his brother's control. This opened anew the rift between the two rulers: Ibn Tulun organized an assembly of religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al-Muwaffaq a usurper, condemned his maltreatment of the Caliph, declared his place in the succession as void, and called for a jihād against him. Al-Muwaffaq was duly denounced in sermons in the mosques across the Tulunid domains, while the Abbasid regent responded in kind with a ritual denunciation of Ibn Tulun.[38] Ibn Tulun then tried once more, again without success, to impose his rule over Tarsus. He fell ill on his return journey to Egypt, and died at Fustat on 10 May 884. [39]

Map of the Tulunid domains towards the end of Khumarawayh's reign

At Ibn Tulun's death, Khumarawayh, with the backing of the Tulunid elites, succeeded without opposition.

Jaysh was a drunkard who executed his uncle, Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun; he was deposed after only a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh. Harun too was a weak ruler, and although a revolt by his uncle Rabi'ah in Alexandria was suppressed, the Tulunids were unable to confront the attacks of the Qarmatians who began at the same time. In addition, many commanders defected to the Abbasids, whose power revived under the capable leadership of al-Muwaffaq's son, Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902). Finally, in December 904, two other sons of Ibn Tulun, Ali and Shayban, murdered their nephew and assumed control of the Tulunid state. Far from halting the decline, this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led to the rapid and relatively unopposed reconquest of Syria and Egypt by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib, who entered Fustat in January 905. With the exception of the Great Mosque of Ibn Tulun, the victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al-Qata'i and razed it to the ground.[44][45]

Second Abbasid period and Ikhshidid period

The Abbasids were able to repulse

Fatimid invasions of Egypt in 914–915 and 919–921
.

In 935, after repulsing another Fatimid attack, the Turkish commander

Muhammad ibn Tughj became the de facto ruler of Egypt with the title of al-Ikhshid.[46] After his death in 946, the succession of his son Unujur was peaceful and undisputed, due to the influence of the powerful and talented commander-in-chief, Kafur. One of the many Black African slaves recruited by al-Ikhshid, Kafur remained the paramount minister and virtual ruler of Egypt over the next 22 years, assuming power in his own right in 966 until his death two years later. Encouraged by his death, in 969 the Fatimids invaded and conquered Egypt, beginning a new era in the country's history.[47][48]

Fatimid period

Main article: Fatimid Caliphate
The near East in 1025 AD, showing the Fatimid Caliphate and neighbors

Carmathians of Damascus under Hasan al-Asam advanced through Palestine
to Egypt, and in the autumn of 971 Jauhar found himself besieged in his new city. By a timely sortie, preceded by the administration of bribes to various officers in the Carmathian host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of Syria.

Meanwhile, the caliph in 2

Shiism
) which his family represented. As this was in origin identical with that professed by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the submission of their leader by argument; but this plan was unsuccessful, and there was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his arrival, and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital.

The Carmathians were gradually forced to retreat from Egypt and then from Syria by some successful engagements, and by the judicious use of bribes, whereby dissension was sown among their leaders. Al-Muizz also found time to take some active measures against the Byzantines, with whom his generals fought in Syria with varying fortune. Before his death he was acknowledged as Caliph in Mecca and Medina, as well as Syria, Egypt and North Africa as far as Tangier.

Under the

Buwayhid ruler of Baghdad, and tried to gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to Iraq
, but this was prevented by the intervention of the Byzantines. His North African possessions were maintained and extended, but the recognition of the Fatimid caliph in this region was little more than nominal.

The Al-Azhar Mosque, of medieval Fatimid Cairo

His successor

Jews
in his dominions to his own opinions by force.

A more reputable expedient with the same end in view was the construction of a great library in Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was modelled on a similar institution at Baghdad. For unknown reasons al-Hakim disappeared in 1021.

In 1049 the

Hashshashin
, or Assassins.

During the

Ortokids, thereby facilitating its conquesst by the Crusaders in 1099. He endeavoured to retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but he was defeated at the battle of Ascalon
, and compelled to retire to Egypt. Many of the Palestinian possessions of the Fatimids then successively fell into the hands of the Crusaders.

In 1118 Egypt was invaded by

Tyre to the Crusaders, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated by the Venetians
.

In 1153

Abul-Qasim Isa
to the throne.

In December 1162, the vizier

Amalric I, who hastened to his aid with a large force, which united with Shawar's and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis for three months; at the end of this time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria, the Franks granted Shirkuh a free passage with his troops back to Syria, on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164).[49]

Two years later Shirkuh, a Kurdish general known as "the Lion", persuaded Nureddin to put him at the head of another expedition to Egypt, which left Syria in January 1167; a Frankish army hastened to Shawar's aid. At the battle of Babain (April 11, 1167) the allies were defeated by the forces commanded by Shirkuh and his nephew Saladin, who was made prefect of Alexandria, which surrendered to Shirkuh without a struggle. In 1168 Amalric invaded again, but Shirkuh's return caused the Crusaders to withdraw.

Shirkuh was appointed vizier but died of indigestion (March 23, 1169), and the Caliph appointed Saladin as successor to Shirkuh; the new vizier professed to hold office as a deputy of Nureddin, whose name was mentioned in public worship after that of the Caliph. Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing with Crusader invasions of Egypt, and he ordered Saladin to substitute the name of the Abbasid caliph for the Fatimid in public worship. The last Fatimid caliph died soon after in September, 1171.

Ayyubid period

Main article: Ayyubid dynasty
Ayyubid Empire
at its greatest extent

Saladin, a general known as "the Lion", was confirmed as Nureddin's deputy in Egypt, and on the death of Nureddin on April 12, 1174, he took the title

Crusader States, and Egypt was largely governed by his deputy Karaksh
.

Saladin's son Othman succeeded him in Egypt in 1193. He allied with his uncle (Saladin's brother) Al-Adil I against Saladin's other sons, and after the wars that followed, Al-Adil took power in 1200. He died in 1218 during the siege of Damietta in the Fifth Crusade, and was succeeded by Al-Kamil, who lost Damietta to the Crusaders in 1219. However, he defeated their advance to Cairo by flooding the Nile, and they were forced to evacuate Egypt in 1221. Al-Kamil was later forced to give up various cities in Palestina and Syria to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor during the Sixth Crusade, in order to gain his help against Damascus.

Khwarezmians against the Crusaders and Ayyubids. In 1249 he faced an invasion by Louis IX of France (the Seventh Crusade), and Damietta was lost again. Najm al-Din died soon after this, but his son Turanshah
defeated Louis and expelled the Crusaders from Egypt. Turanshah was soon overthrown by the Mameluks, who had become the "kingmakers" since their arrival and now wanted full power for themselves.

Mamluk Egypt

Main article: Mamluk Sultanate
Mamluk manuscript

The Mamluk's violent approach to power brought them great political and economic prosperity and led them to becoming the rulers of Egypt.[50] The Mamluk Egypt period began with the Bahri Dynasty and was followed by the Burji Dynasty. The Bahri Dynasty would rule from 1250 to 1382, while the Burji dynasty would last from 1382 to 1517.[50]

Cultural contributions of the Mamluk Empire spanned across more than religion. Literature and astronomy were two subjects which the Mamluks valued and participated in heavily.[51] They were a highly literate and educated society. Private libraries were a status symbol in Mamluk culture. Some of the libraries discovered show evidence of the remnants of thousands of books.

The end of the period was brought about due to famine, military tensions, disease, and high taxation.

Bahri dynasty

Main article:
Bahri dynasty
al-Salih Ayyub) and quickly began a war with the region of present-day Syria. He was assassinated in 1257 and was succeeded by Qutuz, who faced a growing danger from the Mongols
.

Qutuz defeated the army of

Hulagu Khan at the Battle of Ain Jalut in the year 1260, allowing him to regain all of Syria except for the Crusader strongholds. On the way back to Egypt after the battle, Qutuz died and was succeeded by another commander, Baybars, who assumed the sultanate and ruled from 1260 to 1277. In 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil captured Acre, the last of the crusader cities. The Bahris greatly enhanced the power and prestige of Egypt, building Cairo
from a small town into one of the foremost cities in the world.

Due to the

Islamic world. The Mamluks built much of the earliest remaining architecture of Cairo, including many mosques
built out of stone using long, imposing lines.

Since 1347 the Egyptian population, economy, and political system experienced significant destruction as a result of the Black Death pandemic whose waves continued to destroy Egypt up to the early 16th century.

In 1377 a revolt in Syria spread to Egypt, and the government was taken over by the

Barkuk
. Barkuk was proclaimed sultan in 1382, ending the Bahri dynasty. He was expelled in 1389, but recaptured Cairo in 1390, setting up the Burji dynasty.

Burji dynasty

Main article:
Burji dynasty

The Burji dynasty (1382–1517) proved especially turbulent, with political power-plays resulting in short-lived sultans. During the period, the Mamluks fought

Timur Lenk and conquered Cyprus
.

Plague epidemics continued to ruin Egypt when it spread over the region in 1388–1389, 1397–1398, 1403–1407, 1410–1411, 1415–1419, 1429–1430, 1438–1439, 1444–1449, 1455, 1459–1460, 1468–1469, 1476–1477, 1492, 1498, 1504–1505 and 1513–1514.[53]

Constant political bickering contributed to the inability to resist the

power to Istanbul. However, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as the Egyptian ruling class. The Mamluks and the Burji family regained much of their influence, but technically remained vassals of the Ottomans. Egypt then entered into the middle period of the Ottoman Empire
.

See also

References

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    OCLC 34515063.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link
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  2. OCLC 55792252.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
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  3. ^ a b Kennedy 1998, p. 64.
  4. ^ Athamina 1997, p. 102.
  5. ^ Athamina 1997, pp. 101–102.
  6. ^ Athamina 1997, pp. 102–103.
  7. ^ Kennedy 1998, pp. 65–66.
  8. ^ a b Athamina 1997, p. 104.
  9. ^ Kennedy 1998, pp. 64–65.
  10. ^ Athamina 1997, pp. 104–105.
  11. ^ Kennedy 1998, p. 69.
  12. ^ Kennedy 1998, p. 70.
  13. ^ Kennedy 1998, pp. 65, 70–71.
  14. ^ Kennedy 1998, p. 71.
  15. ^ Kennedy 1998, pp. 71–72.
  16. ^ Kennedy 1998, p. 73.
  17. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 158–159.
  18. ^ Brett 2010, pp. 550–556.
  19. ^ Brett 2010, p. 557.
  20. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 92–93.
  21. ^ Brett 2010, p. 558.
  22. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 93.
  23. ^ Brett 2001, pp. 146–147.
  24. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 91.
  25. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 89–92, 96.
  26. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 312ff..
  27. ^ Brett 2010, pp. 565ff..
  28. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 92.
  29. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 92, 94.
  30. ^ Brett 2010, pp. 559–560.
  31. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 99–100.
  32. ^ a b Bianquis 1998, p. 97.
  33. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 206–208.
  34. ^ a b Brett 2010, p. 560.
  35. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 98.
  36. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 94–95.
  37. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 95–99.
  38. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 100–102.
  39. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 102–103.
  40. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 104.
  41. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 104–105.
  42. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 105–106.
  43. ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 310.
  44. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 106–108.
  45. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 184–185, 310.
  46. ^ Bianquis 1998, p. 112.
  47. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 312–313.
  48. ^ Bianquis 1998, pp. 115–118.
  49. ISBN 0-8052-0898-4
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  50. ^
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  51. OCLC 144525826
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  52. ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1901). A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Methuen. pp. 243–254.
  53. ISBN 5484005604
  54. ISBN 9780816062591
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Sources
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