Egyptian vulture
Egyptian vulture | |
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Adult N. p. percnopterus in northern India | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Accipitriformes |
Family: | Accipitridae |
Subfamily: | Gypaetinae |
Genus: | Neophron Savigny, 1809 |
Species: | N. percnopterus
|
Binomial name | |
Neophron percnopterus | |
Subspecies[2] | |
| |
Distribution of the three subspecies | |
Synonyms | |
Vultur percnopterus Linnaeus, 1758 |
The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small
The
Taxonomy and systematics
The Egyptian vulture was
Subspecies
There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations.[11] The nominate subspecies, N. p. percnopterus, with a dark grey bill, has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and north-western India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter.
The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies N. p. ginginianus, the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill.[12][13] The subspecies name is derived from Gingee in southern India from where the French explorer Pierre Sonnerat described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and it was given a Latin name by John Latham in his Index Ornithologicus (1790).[14][15]
A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, N. p. majorensis in 2002. Known locally as the guirre they are genetically more distant from N. p. percnopterus, significantly greater even than N. p. ginginianus is from N. p. percnopterus. Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and consistently larger in size. The subspecies name majorensis is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name for the island of Fuerteventura. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the "Majos", the main native Guanche tribe there.[11][16] One study in 2010 suggested that the species established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans.[17]
Etymology
The
Description
The adult's plumage is white, with black flight feathers in the wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil. Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white plumage.[23][24] It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic colouration.[25] The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The neck feathers are long and form a hackle. The wings are pointed, with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped. The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles.[26] The claws are long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed at the base.
The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian ginginianus. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study, particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in rubripersonatus.[13][27] The facial skin is yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females.[23] Females average slightly larger and are about 10–15% heavier than males.[26] Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches.[28] The adult plumage is attained only after about five years.[23]
Measurements | |||
---|---|---|---|
Nominate[28][26] | |||
Culmen | 31–34 mm (1.2–1.3 in) | ||
Wing | 470–536 mm (19–21 in) | ||
460–545 mm (18–21 in) | |||
Tail | 220–251 mm (8.7–9.9 in) | ||
240–267 mm (9.4–11 in) | |||
Tarsus | 75–87 mm (3.0–3.4 in) | ||
Weight | 1,600–2,400 g (56–85 oz) | ||
ginginianus[28][26] | |||
Wing | 393–490 mm (15–19 in) | ||
455–505 mm (18–20 in) | |||
Tail | 228–251 mm (9.0–9.9 in) | ||
Tarsus | 72–85 mm (2.8–3.3 in) | ||
majorensis[24] | |||
Wing | 485–554 mm (19–22 in) | ||
Tail | 240–285 mm (9.4–11 in) | ||
Tarsus | 73.5–93 mm (2.9–3.7 in) | ||
Weight | 1,900–2,850 g (67–100 oz) |
The adult Egyptian vulture measures 47–65 centimetres (19–26 in) from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller N. p. ginginianus males are about 47–52 centimetres (19–20 in) long while females are 52–55.5 centimetres (20.5–21.9 in) long.[13] The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length.[26] Birds from Spain weigh about 1.9 kilograms (4.2 lb) while birds of the Canary Island subspecies majorensis, representing a case of island gigantism, are heavier with an average weight of 2.4 kilograms (5.3 lb).[24] The Egyptian vulture is one of the smallest true Old World vulture, the only smaller species appears to be the marginally lighter palm-nut vulture (which may be an outlier from other vultures).[29][30] Additionally, the hooded vulture is only scarcely larger than the Egyptian species.[30]
Distribution and movements
Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the
Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in South Africa although they bred in the Transkei region prior to 1923.[32] They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees.[28] Like many other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings over water.[33][34] Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands of Marettimo and Pantelleria with rare stops on the island country of Malta.[35][36] Those that migrate through the Iberian Peninsula cross into Africa over the Strait of Gibraltar while others cross further east through the Levant.[37][38][26] In summer, some African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been recorded in England,[39][40] Ireland,[41] and southern Sweden.[42]
Migrating birds can sometimes cover 500 kilometres (310 mi) in a single day until they reach the southern edge of the Sahara, 3,500 to 5,500 kilometres (2,200 to 3,400 mi) from their summer home. Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in the grassland and semi-desert regions of the Sahel.[38]
Behaviour and ecology
The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a waddling gait.
Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a carcass. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in flight.[13] They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry.[49]
Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on cliffs.[13] Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or other suitable foraging area. In Spain and Morocco,[50] summer roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost trees tended to be large dead pines.[51][52] The number of adults at the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost during June.[53] Allopreening has been observed in Canarian Egyptian vultures between mated pairs of individuals as well as pairs of unrelated and same-sex individuals, particularly females.[45]
Breeding
The breeding season is in spring.
Extra-pair copulation with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg laying period.[58] Females may sometimes associate with two males and all three help in raising the brood.[59] The typical clutch consists of two eggs which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black.[49] The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days.[28] The second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases the likelihood that it will die of starvation.[60] In cliffs where the nests are located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to neighbouring nests to obtain food.[61] In the Spanish population, young fledge and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days.[62] Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for at least a month.[26] Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents' territory; young birds have been found nearly 500 km away from their nest site.[63][52] One-year-old European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring.[38][37] After migrating back to their breeding areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75 for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds.[64]
Tool use
Threats and conservation
Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by
Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the
In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities.
The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998.
In culture
| ||
Egyptian Vulture in hieroglyphs | ||
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The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of rachamah/racham which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle".[21][91]
In
Footnotes
- . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
- .
- ^ Linnaeus 1758, p. 87.
- ^ Savigny, Jules-César Savigny (1809). "Systeme des oiseaux de l'Egypte et de la Syrie". Description de l'Égypte. Tome 1. Vol. 1. p. 68.
- ^ Feduccia 1974.
- ^ Hertel 1995.
- S2CID 247605500.
- ^ Wink, Heidrich & Fentzloff 1996.
- ^ Wink 1995.
- ^ Seibold & Helbig 1995.
- ^ a b Donázar et al. 2002b.
- ^ Peters 1979, p. 304.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Rasmussen & Anderton 2005.
- ^ Jardine & Selby 1826.
- ^ Latham 1787, p. 7.
- ^ Kretzmann et al. 2003.
- ^ Agudo et al. 2010.
- ^ Hartert 1920.
- ^ Zarudny & Härms 1902.
- ^ Grimal 1996.
- ^ a b Koenig 1907.
- ^ Thompson 1895, p. 146.
- ^ a b c Clark & Schmitt 1998.
- ^ a b c d e Donázar et al. 2002a.
- ^ van Overveld, de la Riva & Donázar 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001.
- ^ Whistler 1922.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ali & Ripley 1978.
- ISSN 1367-9430.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
- ^ a b "Egyptian Vulture in Armenia". Armenian Bird Census Council. 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-03-28. Retrieved 2017-03-27.
- ^ Mundy 1978.
- ^ Yosef & Alon 1997.
- ^ Spaar 1997.
- ^ "'Rather rare' Egyptian vulture lands in Malta". 3 September 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
- ^ Agostini et al. 2004.
- ^ a b García-Ripollés, López-López & Urios 2010.
- ^ a b c Meyburg et al. 2004.
- ^ "Capture of an Egyptian vulture". Chelmsford Chronicle. 16 October 1868. p. 3. Retrieved 15 April 2016 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ "Isles of Scilly: Egyptian vulture seen in UK for first time in 150 years". BBC. 15 June 2021. Archived from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
- ^ "Egyptian vulture spotted in Ireland for the first time". BBC News. 2021-07-17. Archived from the original on 2021-07-21. Retrieved 2021-07-23.
- ^ Sandgren, B. (1978). "Smutsgam Neophron percnopterus anträffad i Sverige" (PDF). Vår Fågelvärld. 37: 67–68. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-23. Retrieved 2016-04-15.
- ^ Whistler 1949.
- ^ Prakash & Nanjappa 1988.
- ^ a b van Overveld et al. 2021.
- ^ a b c Margalida et al. 2012.
- .
- ^ a b Negro et al. 2002.
- ^ a b Baker 1928.
- S2CID 85701482.
- ^ Donázar, Ceballos & Tella 1996.
- ^ a b Ceballos & Donázar 1990.
- ^ Margalida & Boudet 2003.
- ^ Ceballos & Donázar 1989.
- ^ Biddulph 1937.
- ^ Paynter 1924.
- ^ Gangoso 2005.
- ^ Donázar, Ceballos & Tella 1994.
- ^ Tella 1993.
- ^ Donázar & Ceballos 1989a.
- ^ Donázar & Ceballos 1990.
- ^ Donázar & Ceballos 1989b.
- ^ Elorriaga et al. 2009.
- ^ Grande et al. 2009.
- ^ van Lawick-Goodall & van Lawick 1966.
- ^ Wood, J.G. (1875). Wood's Bible Animals. William Garretson & Co. p. 343.
- ^ Baxter, Urban & Brown 1969.
- ^ Thouless, Fanshawe & Bertram 1989.
- ^ Yosef, Kabesa & Yosef 2011.
- ^ Stoyanova, Stefanov & Schmutz 2010.
- ^ Tella & Mañosa 1993.
- ^ Donázar & Ceballos 1988.
- ^ Mateo & Olea 2007.
- ^ Stoyanova & Stefanov 1993.
- ^ Agarwal et al. 2012.
- ^ Suárez-Pérez et al. 2012.
- ^ a b Cuthbert et al. 2006.
- ^ Galushin 2001.
- ^ Galushin 1975.
- ^ Liberatori & Penteriani 2001.
- ^ Cortés-Avizanda, Ceballos & Donázar 2009.
- ^ Hernández & Margalida 2009.
- ^ García-Ripollés & López-López 2006.
- ^ Carrete et al. 2009.
- ^ Angelov, Hashim & Oppel 2012.
- ^ Hidalgo et al. 2005.
- ^ Palacios 2000.
- ^ Palacios 2004.
- ^ Gangoso et al. 2009a.
- ^ Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009.
- ^ Coultas 1876, p. 138.
- ^ Quirke, S.G.J. (2017). "The writing of the Birds. Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Before and After the Founding of Alexandria". Electryone. 5 (1): 32–43.
- ^ Ingerson 1923, p. 34.
- ^ Thompson 1895, p. 48.
- ^ Stratton-Porter 1909, p. 182.
- ^ Anonymous 1854, p. 80.
- ^ Dewar 1906.
- ^ Partridge, Eric (2003). The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang. Routledge. p. 4709.
- ^ Dewar, Douglas (1915). Birds of the Indian Hills. London: John Lane, The Bodley Head. p. 222.
- ^ Neelakantan 1977.
- ^ Siromoney 1977.
- ^ Pope 1900, p. 260.
- ^ Thurston 1906, p. 252.
- ^ Mudaliyar, M.M. Kumarasami (1923). Tirukalukunram (Pakshi-Tirtham). The Diocesan Press. pp. 14–16.
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External links
- BTO BirdFacts – Egyptian Vulture
- Egyptian Vulture species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
- Egyptian Vulture – Global Raptor Information Network Archived 2022-04-20 at the Wayback Machine
- Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
- "Egyptian vulture media". Internet Bird Collection.
- Egyptian vulture photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
- Armenian Bird Census Council