Shtokavian
Shtokavian | |
---|---|
štokavski / штокавски | |
Native to | Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo |
Indo-European
| |
Standard forms | |
Dialects |
|
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | sh |
ISO 639-3 | hbs |
Glottolog | shto1241 |
Linguasphere | 53-AAA-ga to -gf & |
Shtokavian or Štokavian (
Shtokavian is spoken in
Early history of Shtokavian
South Slavic languages and dialects |
---|
The
Western Shtokavian covered the major part of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and part of Southern
As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. The modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular) is primarily a result of the
By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern
Earliest texts of Shtokavian dialect
Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with elements of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the
Relationship towards neighboring dialects
Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical
The main bundle of isoglosses separates Slovenian and Kajkavian on the one hand from Shtokavian and Chakavian on the other. These are:[19]
- long falling accent of newer origin (neocircumflex)
- development of the consonant group rj (as opposed to consonant /r/) from former soft /r'/ before a vowel (e.g., morjem, zorja)
- reflexes of /o/ or /ọ/ of the old Common Slavic nasal vowel/ǫ/, and not /u/
- inflectional morpheme -o (as opposed to -ojo) in the instrumental singular of a-declension
Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun kaj (as opposed to što/šta used in Shtokavian), are:[20]
- a reflex of old semivowels of /ẹ/ (e.g. dẹn < Common Slavic *dьnь, pẹs < Common Slavic *pьsъ); closed /ẹ/ appearing also as a jat reflex
- retention of word-final -l (e.g. došel, as opposed to Shtokavian došao)
- word-initial u- becoming v- (e.g. vuho, vuzel, vozek)
- dephonemicization of affricates /č/ and /ć/ to some form of middle value
- genitive plural of masculine nouns has the morpheme -of / -ef
- syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural has the ending -ami
- the ending -me in the first-person plural present (e.g. vidime)
- affix š in the formation of adjectival comparatives (e.g. debleši, slabeši)
- supine
- future tense formation in the form of bom/bum došel, došla, došlo
Characteristics distinguishing Chakavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ča, are:[20]
- preservation of polytonic three-accent system
- vocalization of weak jers in word-initial syllables (e.g. malin/melin < Common Slavic *mъlinъ; cf. Shtokavian mlin)
- vowel /a/ as opposed to /e/ after )
- the appearance of extremely palatal /t'/ or /ć'/ (< earlier /t'/) and /j/ (< earlier /d'/) either in free positions or in groups št', žd'
- depalatalization of /n'/ and /l'/
- /ž/ instead of /dʒ/ (c.f. Čk. žep : Št. džep)
- /č/ > /š/ before consonants (c.f. Čk. maška : Št. mačka)
- word-initial consonant groups čr-, čri-, čre- (c.f. Čk. črivo/črevo : Št. cr(ij)evo, Čk. črn : Št. crn)
- conditional mood with biš in the second-person singular
- non-syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural
General characteristics
General characteristics of Shtokavian are the following:[21]
- što or šta as the demonstrative/interrogative pronoun
- differentiation between two short (in addition to two or three long) accents, rising and falling, though not in all Shtokavian speakers
- preservation of unaccented length, but not consistently across all speeches
- /u/ as the reflex of Common Slavic back nasal vowel /ǫ/ as well as the syllabic /l/ (with the exception of central Bosnia where a diphthongal /uo/ is also recorded as a reflex)
- initial group of v- + weak semivowel yields u- (e.g. unuk < Common Slavic *vъnukъ)
- schwa resulting from the jer merger yields /a/, with the exception of the Zeta-Raška dialect
- metathesis of vьse to sve
- čr- > cr-, with the exception of Slavonian, Molise and Vlah oasis-Burgenlanddialect
- word-final -l changes to /o/ or /a/; the exception is the verbal adjective in the Slavonian southwest
- ď > /dʑ/ ⟨đ⟩ with numerous exceptions
- cr > tr in the word trešnja "cherry"; some exceptions in Slavonia, Hungary and Romania
- ć and đ from jt, jd (e.g. poći, pođem); exceptions in Slavonian and Eastern Bosnian dialect
- so-called "new iotation" of dentals and labials, with many exceptions, especially in Slavonia and Bosnia
- general loss of phoneme /x/, with many exceptions
- ending -ā in genitive plural of masculine and feminine nouns, with many exceptions
- ending -u in locative singular of masculine and neuter nouns (e.g. u gradu, u m(j)estu)
- augment -ov- / -ev- in the plural of most monosyllabic masculine nouns, with many exceptions (e.g. in the area between Neretva and Dubrovnik)
- syncretism of dative, locative and instrumental plural of nouns, with many exceptions
- preservation of ending -og(a) in genitive and accusative singular of masculine and neuter gender if pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g., drugoga), with exceptions on the area of Dubrovnik and Livno
- special form with the ending -a for the neuter gender in nominative plural of pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g. ova m(j)esta and no ove m(j)esta)
- preservation of aorist, which is however missing in some areas (e.g., around Dubrovnik)
- special constructs reflecting old dual for numerals 2–4 (dva, tri, četiri stola)
- many so-called "Ottoman Turkish
As can be seen from the list, many of these isoglosses are missing from particular Shtokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Shtokavian dialects.
There exist three main criteria for the division of Shtokavian dialects:[22]
- Accentuation ("Old-Shtokavian" and "Neo-Shtokavian"; see section below)
- Yat reflex ("Ikavian", "Ijekavian", "Ekavian"; see section below)
- Young Proto-Slavic (600–750 AD[23]) palatal consonant isogloss: *šć-*žƷ (Šćakavski - Schakavian; "Western Shtokavian" including Slavonian, Eastern Bosnian and transitory Western ikavian dialect) and *št & *žd (Štakaviski - Shtakavian; "Eastern Shtokavian" including Eastern Herzegovinian-Krajina, Šumadija-Vojvodina, Kosovo-Resava, Zeta-Raška dialect). The isogloss developed between 7th and 8/9th century, and the former relates those dialects with Chakavian and Kajkavian, while the latter relates those dialects with Bulgarian.[8][24][25][26]
Accentuation
The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects. The primary distinction is the accentuation system: although there are variations, "old" dialects preserve the older accent system, which consists of two types of falling (
In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian metatony" or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on the inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch.
Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones.[27] They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings.[27]
The following notation is used for Shtokavian accents:
Description | IPA | Traditional | Diacritic |
---|---|---|---|
unstressed short | [e] | e | – |
unstressed long | eː | ē | macron |
short rising | ě | è | Grave |
long rising | ěː | é | Acute |
short falling | ê | ȅ | Double grave
|
long falling | êː | ȇ | Inverted breve |
The following table shows the examples of Neo-Shtokavian retraction:
Old stress | New stress | Note | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | Trad. | IPA | Trad. | |
kûtɕa | kȕća | kûtɕa | kȕća | No retraction from the first syllable |
prâːvda | prȃvda | prâːvda | prȃvda | No retraction from the first syllable |
livâda | livȁda | lǐvada | lìvada | Retraction from short to short syllable → short rising |
junâːk | junȃk | jǔnaːk | jùnāk | Retraction from long to short syllable → short rising + unstressed length |
priːlîka | prīlȉka | prǐːlika | prílika | Retraction from short to long syllable → long rising |
ʒīːvîːm | žīvȋm | ʒǐːviːm | žívīm | Retraction from long to long syllable → long rising + unstressed length |
As result of this process, the following set of rules emerged, which are still in effect in all standard variants of Serbo-Croatian:
- Falling accents may only occur word-initially (otherwise it would have been retracted).
- Rising accents may occur anywhere except word-finally.
- thus, monosyllabic words may only have falling accent.
- Unstressed length may only appear after a stressed syllable.
In practice, influx of foreign words and formation of compound words have loosened these rules, especially in spoken idioms (e.g. paradȁjz, asistȅnt, poljoprȉvreda), but they are maintained in standard language and dictionaries.[28]
Classification
Old-Shtokavian dialects
Timok–Prizren (Torlakian)
The transitional dialects stretch southwest from the
Torlakian is spoken in
, where the Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. It has been recorded several exclaves with Torlakian speeches inside Kosovo-Resava dialect area. One is the most prominent and preserved, like village Dublje near Svilajnac, where the majority of settlers came from Torlakian speaking village Veliki Izvor near Zajecar. Few centuries ago, before settlers from Kosovo and Metohija brought Kosovo-Resava speeches to Eastern Serbia (to Bor and Negotin area), Torlakian speech had been overwhelmingly represented in this region.Slavonian
Also called the Archaic Šćakavian, it is spoken by
Eastern Bosnian
Also called Jekavian-Šćakavian,[29] Eastern Bosnian dialect has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo, Tuzla, and Zenica, and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area (Vareš, Usora, etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj dete–djeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica djete–diteta (Jekavian–ikavian). In the central area of the subdialect, the diphthong uo exists in some words instead of the archaic l and more common u like vuok or stuop, instead of the standard modern vuk and stup.
Zeta–Raška
Also known as Đekavian-Ijekavian, it is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in
Some vernaculars have a very open /ɛ/ or /æ/ as their reflex of ь/ъ, very rare in other Shtokavian vernaculars (sæn and dæn instead of san and dan).[citation needed] Other phonetic features include sounds like ʑ in iʑesti instead of izjesti, ɕ as in ɕekira instead of sjekira. However these sounds are known also to many in East Herzegovina like those in Konavle,[30] and are not Zeta–Raška specific . There is a loss of the /v/ sound apparent, seen in čo'ek or đa'ola. The loss of distinction between /ʎ/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on a substratum. The word pljesma is a hypercorrection (instead of pjesma) because many vernaculars have changed lj to j.
All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: pjevat 'sing'). This feature is also present in most vernaculars of East Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars.
The group a + o gave ā /aː/ (kā instead of kao, rekā for rekao), like in other seaside vernaculars. Elsewhere, more common is ao > ō.
Kosovo–Resava
Also called Older Ekavian, is spoken by Serbs, mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo (
Substitution of jat is predominantly Ekavian accent even on the end of datives (žene instead of ženi), in pronouns (teh instead of tih), in comparatives (dobrej instead of dobriji) in the negative of biti (nesam instead of nisam); in Smederevo–Vršac dialects, Ikavian forms can be found (di si instead of gde si?). Smederevo–Vršac dialect (spoken in northeastern Šumadija, Lower Great Morava Valley and Banat) is sometimes classified as a subdialect of the Kosovo-Resava dialect but is also considered to be a separate dialect as it the represents mixed speech of Šumadija–Vojvodina and Kosovo–Resava dialects.
Neo-Shtokavian dialects
Bosnian–Dalmatian
Also called Bunjevac, or Western Ikavian. The majority of its speakers are
Dubrovnik
Also known as Western Ijekavian, in earlier centuries, this subdialect was the independent subdialect of Western Shtokavian dialect. The Dubrovnik dialect has mixed Jekavian and Ikavian pronunciations or mixed Shtokavian and Chakavian vocabulary. Some vocabulary from Dalmatian, older Venetian and modern Italian are also present.
Šumadija–Vojvodina
Also known as Younger Ekavian, is one of the bases for the standard Serbian language. It is spoken by Serbs across most of Vojvodina (excluding easternmost parts around Vršac), northern part of western Serbia, around Kragujevac and Valjevo in Šumadija, in Mačva around Šabac and Bogatić, in Belgrade and in predominantly ethnically Serbian villages in eastern Croatia around the town of Vukovar. It is predominately Ekavian (Ikavian forms are of morphophonological origin). In some parts of Vojvodina the old declension is preserved. Most Vojvodina dialects and some dialects in Šumadija have an open e and o[clarification needed]. However the vernaculars of western Serbia, and in past to them connected vernaculars of (old) Belgrade and southwestern Banat (Borča, Pančevo, Bavanište) are as close to the standard as a vernacular can be. The dialect presents a base for the Ekavian variant of the Serbian standard language.
Eastern Herzegovinian
Also called Eastern Herzegovinian or Neo-Ijekavian. It encompasses by far the largest area and the number of speakers of all Shtokavian dialects. It is the dialectal basis of the standard literary Croatian, Bosnian, Serbian, and Montenegrin languages.
Micro groups:
- western Montenegro – spoken south Ijekavian variant.
- ).
- Serbs east Ijekavian variant groups; East Bosnia, East Herzegovina (Trebinje, Nevesinje, Bileća), Bosnian Krajina, western Serbia and Podrinje (Užice, Čačak, Ivanjica, Loznica, Priboj, Prijepolje ) and minority Croatian Serbs. City: Trebinje, Bijeljina, Banja Luka, Nevesinje, Pale.
- Its south-eastern form is characterised by the total lack of /x/ sound that is sometimes not only left out or replaced by more common /j/ or /v/ but is replaced as well by less common /k/ and /ɡ/ (bijak, bijaku imperfect of verb biti). Local forms in the Kajkavian.
Yat reflexes
The Proto-Slavic vowel jat (ѣ in Cyrillic or ě in Latin) has changed over time, coming to be pronounced differently in different areas. These different reflexes define three "pronunciations" (izgovori) of Shtokavian:
- In Ekavian pronunciation (ekavski [ěːkaʋskiː]),[31] jat has conflated into the vowel e
- in Ikavian pronunciation (ikavski [ǐːkaʋskiː]),[32] it has conflated into the vowel i
- in Ijekavian or Jekavian pronunciation (ijekavski [ijěːkaʋskiː][33] or jekavski [jěːkaʋskiː]),[33] it has come to be pronounced ije or je, depending on whether the vowel was long or short. In standard Croatian, pronunciation is always Jekavian: when yat is short then it is [je] (written as je), and when yat is long then it is [je:] (written as ije).
Historically, the yat reflexes had been inscribed in Church Slavic texts before the significant development of Shtokavian dialect, reflecting the beginnings of the formative period of the vernacular. In early documents it is predominantly Church Slavic of the Serbian or Croatian recension (variant). The first undoubted Ekavian reflex (beše 'it was') is found in a document from Serbia dated 1289; the first Ikavian reflex (svidoci 'witnesses') in Bosnia in 1331; and first Ijekavian reflex (želijemo 'we wish', a "hyper-Ijekavism") in Croatia in 1399. Partial attestation can be found in earlier texts (for instance, Ikavian pronunciation is found in a few Bosnian documents from the latter half of the 13th century), but philologists generally accept the aforementioned dates. In the second half of the 20th century, many vernaculars with unsubstituted yat[clarification needed] are found.[34] The intrusion of the vernacular into Church Slavic grew in time, to be finally replaced by the vernacular idiom. This process took place for Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks independently and without mutual interference until the mid-19th century. Historical linguistics, textual analysis and dialectology have dispelled myths about allegedly "unspoilt" vernacular speech of rural areas: for instance, it is established that Bosniaks have retained phoneme "h" in numerous words (unlike Serbs and Croats), due to elementary religious education based on the Quran, where this phoneme is the carrier of specific semantic value.
The Ekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Eastern, is spoken primarily in Serbia, and in small parts of Croatia. The Ikavian pronunciation, sometimes called Western, is spoken in western and central Bosnia, western Herzegovina, some of Slavonia and the major part of Dalmatia in Croatia. The Ijekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Southern, is spoken in central Croatia, most of Slavonia, southern Dalmatia, most of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, as well as some parts of western Serbia. The following are some generic examples:
English | Predecessor | Ekavian | Ikavian | Ijekavian |
---|---|---|---|---|
time | vrěme | vreme | vrime | vrijeme |
beautiful | lěp | lep | lip | lijep |
girl | děvojka | devojka | divojka | djevojka |
true | věran | veran | viran | vjeran |
to sit | sědĕti | sedeti (sèdeti) | siditi (sìditi) | sjediti |
to grow gray hairs | sěděti | sedeti (sédeti) | siditi (síditi) | sijediti |
to heat | grějati | grejati | grijati | grijati |
Long ije is pronounced as a single syllable, [jeː], by many Ijekavian speakers, especially in Croatia. However, in Zeta dialect and most of East Herzegovina dialect, it is pronounced as two syllables, [ije], which is the Croatian official standard too, but seldom actually practiced. This distinction can be clearly heard in first verses of national anthems of Croatia and Montenegro—they're sung as "L'je-pa [two syllables] na-ša do-mo-vi-no" and "Oj svi-je-tla [three syllables] maj-ska zo-ro" respectively.
The Ikavian pronunciation is the only one that is not part of any standard variety of Serbo-Croatian today, though it was a variant used for a significant literary output between the 15th and 18th centuries. This has led to a reduction in its use and an increase in the use of Ijekavian in traditionally Ikavian areas since the standardization. For example, most people in formerly fully Ikavian Split, Croatia today use both Ikavian and Ijekavian words in everyday speech, without a clearly predictable pattern (usually more emotionally charged or intimate words are Ikavian and more academic, political, generally standardised words Ijekavian, but it is not a straight out rule).
The IETF language tags have assigned the variants sr-ekavsk
and sr-ijekavsk
to Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations, respectively.[35]
Ethnic affiliation of native speakers of Shtokavian dialect
During the first half of the 19th century, protagonists of nascent Slavic philology were, as far as South Slavic dialects were concerned, embroiled in frequently bitter polemic about "ethnic affiliation" of native speakers of various dialects. This, from contemporary point of view, rather bizarre obsession was motivated primarily by political and national interests that prompted philologists-turned-ideologues to express their views on the subject. The most prominent contenders in the squabble, with conflicting agenda, were the Czech philologist
The dispute was primarily concerned with who can, philologically, be labelled as "Slovene", "Croat" and "Serb" with the aim of expanding one's national territory and influence. Born in the climate of romanticism and national awakening, these polemical battles led to increased tensions between the aforementioned nations, especially because the Shtokavian dialect cannot be split along ethnic lines in an unequivocal manner.
However, contemporary native speakers, after process of national crystallization and identification had been completed, can be roughly identified as predominant speakers of various Shtokavian subdialects. Because standard languages propagated through media have strongly influenced and altered the situation in the 19th century, the following attribution must be treated with necessary caution.
The distribution of Old-Shtokavian speakers along ethnic lines in present times is as follows:
- Timok-Prizren (Ekavian accent) dialect: Serbian
- Kosovo-Resava (Ekavian accent) dialect: Serbian
- Zeta-Raška dialect (Ijekavian accent): Montenegrin, Bosniak and Serbian.
- Slavonian dialect (fluctuating "yat": mainly Ikavian accent, also Ijekavian and Ekavian): vastly Croatian
- Eastern Bosnian dialect (Ijekavian accent): Bosniak and Croatian
Generally, the Neo-Shtokavian dialect is divided as follows with regard to the ethnicity of its native speakers:
- Šumadija-Vojvodina dialect (Ekavian accent): Serbian
- Dalmatian-Bosnian dialect (Ikavian accent): Croatian and Bosniak
- Eastern Herzegovinian (Ijekavian accent): Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian and Bosniak
Group | Sub-Dialect | Serbian | Croatian | Bosnian | Montenegrin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old-Shtokavian | Timok-Prizren | x | |||
Kosovo-Resava | x | ||||
Zeta-Raška | x | x | x | ||
Slavonian | x | ||||
Eastern Bosnian | x | x | |||
Neo-Shtokavian | Šumadija-Vojvodina | x | |||
Dalmatian-Bosnian | x | x | |||
Eastern Herzgovinian | x | x | x | x |
Standard language
The standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language are all based on the Neo-Shtokavian dialect[36][37][38] as it was formalized in SFR Yugoslavia.[citation needed]
However, it must be stressed that standard variants, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension—but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was reinstated in the standard language.
Croatian has had a long tradition of Shtokavian vernacular literacy and literature. It took almost four and half centuries for Shtokavian to prevail as the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard. In other periods, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects, as well as hybrid Chakavian–Kajkavian–Shtokavian interdialects "contended" for the Croatian national
Serbian was much faster in standardisation. Although vernacular literature was present in the 18th century, it was Vuk Karadžić who, between 1818 and 1851, made a radical break with the past and established Serbian Neo-Shtokavian folklore idiom as the basis of standard Serbian (until then, educated Serbs had been using Serbian Slavic, Russian Slavic and hybrid Russian–Serbian language). Although he wrote in Serbian Ijekavian accent, the majority of Serbs have adopted Ekavian accent, which is dominant in Serbia. Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia, as well as Montenegrins, use the Ijekavian accent.
Bosnian is only currently beginning to take shape. The Bosniak idiom can be seen as a transition between Serbian Ijekavian and Croatian varieties, with some specific traits. After the collapse of Yugoslavia, Bosniaks affirmed their wish to stylize their own standard language, based on the Neo-Shtokavian dialect, but reflecting their characteristics—from phonetics to semantics.
Also, the contemporary situation is unstable with regard to the accentuation, because phoneticians have observed that the 4-accents speech has, in all likelihood, shown to be increasingly unstable, which resulted in proposals that a 3-accents norm be prescribed. This is particularly true for
The Croatian, Serbian, and Bosnian standard variants, although all based on the East Herzegovinian subdialect of Neo-Shtokavian and mutually intelligible, do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages (English, Spanish,
In 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia signed the
See also
- Abstand and ausbau languages
- Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian
- Pluricentric language
- Mutual intelligibility
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Further reading
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- Hrnjica, Samra (2018). "Zapadna štokavština u djelu Aleksandra Belića". Croatica et Slavica Iadertina (in Serbo-Croatian). 14/1 (14): 77–85.
- doi:10.15291/csi.414.
- SSRN 3434516. CROSBI 430499. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2013. (ÖNB).
- —— (2009). "Policentrični standardni jezik" [Polycentric Standard Language] (PDF). In Badurina, Lada; SSRN 3438216. CROSBI 426269. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2015. (ÖNB).
- —— (2009). "Plurizentrische Sprachen, Ausbausprachen, Abstandsprachen und die Serbokroatistik" [Pluricentric languages, Ausbau languages, Abstand languages and the Serbo-Croatians]. Zeitschrift für Balkanologie (in German). 45 (2): 210–215. (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
- Kristophson, Jürgen (2000). "Vom Widersinn der Dialektologie: Gedanken zum Štokavischen" [Dialectological Nonsense: Thoughts on Shtokavian]. Zeitschrift für Balkanologie (in German). 36 (2): 178–186. ISSN 0044-2356.
- Peco, Asim (1967). "Uticaj turskog jezika na fonetiku štokavskih govora". Naš jezik, 16, 3. (in Serbo-Croatian)
- Peco, Asim (1981). "Čakavsko-šćakavski odnosi u zapadnobosanskoj govornoj zoni". Hrvatski dijalektološki zbornik (in Serbo-Croatian) (5): 137–144.
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- Thomas, Paul-Louis (2003). "Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues" [Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages]. Revue des études slaves (in French). 74 (2–3): 311–325. ZDB-ID 208723-6. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
- Vidović, Domagoj (2009). "Ikavski i ijekavski govori na širemu neretvanskom području" [Ikavian and Ijekavian speeches in the wider Neretva area]. Ivo Lendić: književnik, novinar, proganik; Četvrti neretvanski književni, znanstveni i kulturni susret (in Serbo-Croatian). pp. 191–205. ISBN 978-953-6223-18-3.
- Vidović, Domagoj (2009). "Utjecaj migracija na novoštokavske ijekavske govore u Neretvanskoj krajini i Donjoj Hercegovini" [The influence of migrations on the Neoštokavian Ijekavian subdialects in the Neretva region and in lower Herzegovina]. Hrvatski dijalektološki zbornik (in Serbo-Croatian) (15): 283–304.