El (deity)
El | |
---|---|
Father of the Gods | |
Other names | |
Abode | Mount Lel |
Symbol | Bull |
Region | Levant (particularly Canaan) and Anatolia |
Personal information | |
Consort |
|
Children | |
Equivalents | |
Syrian equivalent | Dagon[1][2] |
Mesopotamian equivalent | Anu, Enlil[3][4] |
Hurrian equivalent | Kumarbi[3][4] |
Roman equivalent | Saturn |
Deities of the ancient Near East |
---|
Religions of the ancient Near East |
Part of the myth series on |
Religions of the ancient Near East |
---|
Pre-Islamic Arabian deities |
Arabian deities of other Semitic origins |
ʼĒl (
Specific deities known as 'El, 'Al or 'Il include the supreme god of the ancient Canaanite religion[9] and the supreme god of East Semitic speakers in Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia.[10] Among the Hittites, El was known as Elkunirsa (Hittite: 𒂖𒆪𒉌𒅕𒊭 Elkunīrša).
Although ʼĒl gained different appearances and meanings in different languages over time, it continues to exist as -il or -el in compound noun phrases such as Ishmael, Israel, Daniel, Raphael, Michael, and Gabriel.
Linguistic forms and meanings
In northwest Semitic use, “ʼĒl” was a generic word for any god as well as the special name or title of a particular god who was distinguished from other gods as being "the god".
However, because the word ʼĒl sometimes refers to a god other than the great god ʼĒl, it is frequently ambiguous as to whether ʼĒl followed by another name means the great god ʼĒl with a particular epithet applied or refers to another god entirely. For example, in the Ugaritic texts, ʾil mlk is understood to mean "ʼĒl the King" but ʾil hd as "the god Hadad".[13]
The Semitic root ʾlh (
The stem ʾl is found prominently in the earliest strata of east Semitic, northwest Semitic, and south Semitic groups. Personal names including the stem ʾl are found with similar patterns in both the Amorite and Sabaic languages.[16]
Historical development
There is evidence that the Canaanite/Phoenician and Aramaic conception of El is essentially the same as the Amorite conception of El, which was popularized in the 18th century BCE but has origins in the Pre-
Eventually, El’s cult became central to the ethnogenesis of Iron Age Israelites but so far, scholars are unable to determine how much of the population were El worshippers. It is more likely that different locales held different views of El.[17]
Proto-Sinaitic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Hittite texts
The Egyptian god Ptah is given the title ḏū gitti 'Lord of Gath' in a prism from Tel Lachish which has on its opposite face the name of Amenhotep II (c. 1435 – c. 1420 BCE). The title ḏū gitti is also found in Serābitṭ text 353. Frank Moore Cross (1973, p. 19) points out that Ptah is often called the Lord (or one) of eternity and thinks it may be this identification of ʼĒl with Ptah that lead to the epithet 'olam 'eternal' being applied to ʼĒl so early and so consistently.[18] (However, in the Ugaritic texts, Ptah is seemingly identified rather with the craftsman god Kothar-wa-Khasis.)[19] Yet another connection is seen with the Mandaean angel Ptahil, whose name combines both the terms Ptah and Il.[20]
In an inscription in the Proto-Sinaitic script, William F. Albright transcribed the phrase ʾL Ḏ ʿLM, which he translated as the appellation "El, (god) of eternity".[21]
The name
A Phoenician inscribed amulet of the seventh century BCE from Arslan Tash may refer to ʼĒl. The text was translated by Rosenthal (1969, p. 658) as follows:
An eternal bond has been established for us.
Ashshur has established (it) for us,
and all the divine beings
and the majority of the group of all the holy ones,
through the bond of heaven and earth for ever, ...[23]
However, Cross (1973, p. 17) translated the text as follows:
The Eternal One ('Olam) has made a covenant oath with us,
Asherah has made (a pact) with us.
And all the sons of El,
And the great council of all the Holy Ones.
With oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth.[24]
In some inscriptions, the name 'Ēl qōne 'arṣ (Punic: 𐤀𐤋 𐤒𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ʾl qn ʾrṣ) meaning "ʼĒl creator of Earth" appears, even including a late inscription at Leptis Magna in Tripolitania dating to the second century.[25] In Hittite texts, the expression becomes the single name Ilkunirsa, this Ilkunirsa appearing as the husband of Asherdu (Asherah) and father of 77 or 88 sons.[26]
In a Hurrian hymn to ʼĒl (published in Ugaritica V, text RS 24.278), he is called 'il brt and 'il dn, which Cross (p. 39) takes as 'ʼĒl of the covenant' and 'ʼĒl the judge' respectively.[27]
Ugarit and the Levant
For the
respectively.As recorded on the clay tablets of Ugarit, El is the husband of the goddess Asherah.
Three pantheon lists found at
Though Ugarit had a large temple dedicated to Dagon and another to Hadad, there was no temple dedicated to ʼĒl.ʼĒl is repeatedly referred to as ṯr il ("Bull ʼĒl" or "the bull god"). He is bny bnwt ("Creator of creatures"),[30] 'abū banī 'ili ("father of the gods"),[citation needed] and ab adm ("father of man").[30] He is qāniyunu 'ôlam ("creator eternal"),[citation needed] the epithet 'ôlam appearing in Hebrew form in the Hebrew name of God 'ēl 'ôlam "God Eternal" in Genesis 21.33. He is ḥātikuka ("your patriarch"). ʼĒl is the grey-bearded ancient one, full of wisdom, malku ("King"),[30] ab šnm ("Father of years"),[30] 'El gibbōr ("ʼĒl the warrior").[citation needed] He is also named lṭpn of unknown meaning, variously rendered as Laṭpan, Laṭipan, or Luṭpani ("shroud-face" by Strong's Hebrew Concordance), c.f. cognate with Arabic لطيف Laṭif "hidden".[citation needed]
"El" (Father of Heaven / Saturn) and his major son: "Hadad" (Father of Earth / Jupiter), are symbolized both by the bull, and both wear bull horns on their headdresses.[31][32][33][34]
In Canaanite mythology, El builds a desert sanctuary with his children and his two wives, leading to speculation[by whom?] that at one point El was a desert god.
The mysterious Ugaritic text Shachar and Shalim tells how (perhaps near the beginning of all things) ʼĒl came to shores of the sea and saw two women who bobbed up and down. ʼĒl was sexually aroused and took the two with him, killed a bird by throwing a staff at it, and roasted it over a fire. He asked the women to tell him when the bird was fully cooked, and to then address him either as husband or as father, for he would thenceforward behave to them as they called him. They saluted him as husband. He then lay with them, and they gave birth to Shachar ("Dawn") and Shalim ("Dusk"). Again ʼĒl lay with his wives and the wives gave birth to "the gracious gods", "cleavers of the sea", "children of the sea". The names of these wives are not explicitly provided, but some confusing rubrics at the beginning of the account mention the goddess Athirat, who is otherwise ʼĒl's chief wife and the goddess Raḥmayyu ("the one of the womb").[citation needed]
In the Ugaritic
In the episode of the "Palace of Ba'al", the god Ba'al Hadad invites the "seventy sons of Athirat" to a feast in his new palace. Presumably these sons have been fathered on Athirat by ʼĒl; in following passages they seem to be the gods ('ilm) in general or at least a large portion of them. The only sons of ʼĒl named individually in the Ugaritic texts are Yamm ("Sea"), Mot ("Death"), and
The fragmentary text R.S. 24.258 describes a banquet to which ʼĒl invites the other gods and then disgraces himself by becoming outrageously drunk and passing out after confronting an otherwise unknown Hubbay, "he with the horns and tail". The text ends with an incantation for the cure for a hangover.[40][41]
El's characterization in Ugarit texts is not always favorable. His authority is unquestioned, but sometimes exacted through threat or roundly mocked. He is "both comical and pathetic" in a "role of impotence."[42] But this is arguably a misinterpretation since El had complementary relationships with other deities. Any “differences” they had pertained to function. For example, El and Baal were divine kings but El was the executive whilst Baal was the sustainer of the cosmos.[17]
Hebrew Bible
The
In the
The theological position of the Tanakh is that the names ʼĒl and 'Ĕlōhîm, when used in the singular to mean the supreme god, refer to Yahweh, beside whom other gods are supposed to be either nonexistent or insignificant. Whether this was a long-standing belief or a relatively new one has long been the subject of inconclusive scholarly debate about the prehistory of the sources of the Tanakh and about the prehistory of Israelite religion. In the P strand, Exodus 6:3 may be translated:
I revealed myself to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as
Ēl Shaddāi, but was not known to them by my name, YHWH.
However, it is said in Genesis 14:18–20 that
In some places, especially in Psalm 29, Yahweh is clearly envisioned as a storm god,[48] something not true of ʼĒl so far as scholars know[49] (although true of his son, Ba'al Haddad).[50] It is Yahweh who is prophesied to one day battle Leviathan the serpent, and slay the dragon in the sea in Isaiah 27:1.[51] The slaying of the serpent in myth is a deed attributed to both Ba'al Hadad and 'Anat in the Ugaritic texts, but not to ʼĒl.[52] But some scholars argue that "El Shadday" reflects a conception of El as a storm god.
Such mythological motifs are variously seen as late survivals from a period when Yahweh held a place in theology comparable to that of Hadad at Ugarit; or as late
According to The Oxford Companion to World Mythology,
It seems almost certain that the God of the Jews evolved gradually from the Canaanite El, who was in all likelihood the "God of Abraham" ... If El was the high God of Abraham—Elohim, the prototype of Yahveh—Asherah was his wife, and there are archaeological indications that she was perceived as such before she was in effect "divorced" in the context of emerging Judaism of the 7th century BCE. (See 2 Kings 23:15.)[12]
The apparent plural form 'Ēlîm or 'Ēlim "gods" occurs only four times in the Tanakh. Psalm 29, understood as an enthronement psalm, begins:
The apparent plural form 'Ēlîm or 'Ēlim "gods" occurs only four times in the Tanakh. Psalm 29, understood as an enthronement psalm, begins:
A Psalm of David.
Ascribe to Yahweh, sons of Gods (bênê 'Ēlîm),
Ascribe to Yahweh, glory and strength
Psalm 89:6 (verse 7 in Hebrew) has:
For who in the skies compares to Yahweh,
who can be likened to Yahweh among the sons of Gods (bênê 'Ēlîm).
Traditionally bênê 'ēlîm has been interpreted as 'sons of the mighty', 'mighty ones', for 'El can mean 'mighty', though such use may be metaphorical (compare the English expression [by] God awful). It is possible also that the expression 'ēlîm in both places descends from an archaic stock phrase in which 'lm was a singular form with the m-enclitic and therefore to be translated as 'sons of ʼĒl'. The m-enclitic appears elsewhere in the Tanakh and in other Semitic languages. Its meaning is unknown, possibly simply emphasis. It appears in similar contexts in Ugaritic texts where the expression bn 'il alternates with bn 'ilm, but both must mean 'sons of ʼĒl'. That phrase with m-enclitic also appears in Phoenician inscriptions as late as the fifth century BCE.
One of the other two occurrences in the Tanakh is in the "Song of Moses", Exodus 15:11a:
Who is like you among the Gods ('ēlim), Yahweh?
The final occurrence is in Daniel 11:36:
And the king will do according to his pleasure; and he will exalt himself and magnify himself over every god ('ēl), and against the God of Gods ('El 'Elîm) he will speak outrageous things, and will prosper until the indignation is accomplished: for that which is decided will be done.
There are a few cases in the Tanakh where some think 'El referring to the great god ʼĒl is not equated with Yahweh. One is in Ezekiel 28:2, in the taunt against a man who claims to be divine, in this instance, the leader of
Son of man, say to the prince of Tyre: "Thus says the Lord Yahweh: 'Because your heart is proud and you have said: "I am 'ēl (god), in the seat of 'elōhîm (gods), I am enthroned in the middle of the seas." Yet you are man and not 'El even though you have made your heart like the heart of 'elōhîm ('gods').'"
Here 'ēl might refer to a generic god, or to a highest god, ʼĒl. When viewed as applying to the King of Tyre specifically, the king was probably not thinking of Yahweh. When viewed as a general taunt against anyone making divine claims, it may or may not refer to Yahweh depending on the context.
In Judges 9:46 we find 'Ēl Bêrît 'God of the Covenant', seemingly the same as the Ba'al Bêrît 'Lord of the Covenant' whose worship has been condemned a few verses earlier. See Baal for a discussion of this passage.
Psalm 82:1 says:
'elōhîm ("god") stands in the council of 'ēl
he judges among the gods (Elohim).
This could mean that Yahweh judges along with many other gods as one of the council of the high god ʼĒl. However it can also mean that Yahweh stands in the Divine Council (generally known as the Council of ʼĒl), as ʼĒl judging among the other members of the council. The following verses in which the god condemns those whom he says were previously named gods (Elohim) and sons of the Most High suggest the god here is in fact ʼĒl judging the lesser gods.
An archaic phrase appears in Isaiah 14:13, kôkkêbê 'ēl 'stars of God', referring to the circumpolar stars that never set, possibly especially to the seven stars of Ursa Major. The phrase also occurs in the Pyrgi Inscription as hkkbm 'l (preceded by the definite article h and followed by the m-enclitic). Two other apparent fossilized expressions are arzê-'ēl 'cedars of God' (generally translated something like 'mighty cedars', 'goodly cedars') in Psalm 80:10 (in Hebrew verse 11) and kêharrê-'ēl 'mountains of God' (generally translated something like 'great mountains', 'mighty mountains') in Psalm 36:7 (in Hebrew verse 6).
For the reference in some texts of Deuteronomy 32:8 to seventy sons of God corresponding to the seventy sons of ʼĒl in the Ugaritic texts, see
It has been argued that in the supposed original version of
That said, there are verses where El and Yahweh are unambiguously conflated (Numbers 23:8) but some scholars believe this is an attempt to portray El as a warrior god, as Israelite society grew and evolved into a nation-state. [17]
Sanchuniathon
Sky and Earth have separated from one another in hostility, but Sky insists on continuing to force himself on Earth and attempts to destroy the children born of such unions. At last, with the advice of his daughter Athena and the god Hermes Trismegistus (perhaps Thoth), ʼĒl successfully attacks his father Sky with a sickle and spear of iron. He and his military allies the Eloim gain Sky's kingdom.[63]
In a later passage it is explained that ʼĒl castrated Sky. One of Sky's concubines (who was given to ʼĒl's brother Dagon) was already pregnant by Sky. The son who is born of the union, called Demarûs or Zeus, but once called Adodus, is obviously Hadad, the Ba'al of the Ugaritic texts who now becomes an ally of his grandfather Sky and begins to make war on ʼĒl.
ʼĒl has three wives, his sisters or half-sisters Aphrodite/Astarte ('Ashtart), Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (identified by Sanchuniathon with Ba'alat Gebal the tutelary goddess of Byblos, a city which Sanchuniathon says that ʼĒl founded).
El is depicted primarily as a warrior; in Ugaritic sources Baal has the warrior role and El is peaceful, and it may be that the Sanchuniathon depicts an earlier tradition that was more preserved in the southern regions of Canaan.[63][66]: 255
Eusebius, through whom the Sanchuniathon is preserved, is not interested in setting the work forth completely or in order. But we are told that ʼĒl slew his own son Sadidus (a name that some commentators think might be a corruption of Shaddai, one of the epithets of the Biblical ʼĒl) and that ʼĒl also beheaded one of his daughters. Later, perhaps referring to this same death of Sadidus we are told:
But on the occurrence of a pestilence and mortality Cronus offers his only begotten son as a whole burnt-offering to his father Sky and circumcises himself, compelling his allies also to do the same.
A fuller account of the sacrifice appears later:
It was a custom of the ancients in great crises of danger for the rulers of a city or nation, in order to avert the common ruin, to give up the most beloved of their children for sacrifice as a ransom to the avenging daemons; and those who were thus given up were sacrificed with mystic rites. Cronus then, whom the Phoenicians call Elus, who was king of the country and subsequently, after his decease, was deified as the star Saturn, had by a nymph of the country named Anobret an only begotten son, whom they on this account called Iedud, the only begotten being still so called among the Phoenicians; and when very great dangers from war had beset the country, he arrayed his son in royal apparel, and prepared an altar, and sacrificed him.
The account also relates that Thoth:
also devised for Cronus as insignia of royalty four eyes in front and behind ... but two of them quietly closed, and upon his shoulders four wings, two as spread for flying, and two as folded. And the symbol meant that Cronus could see when asleep, and sleep while waking: and similarly in the case of the wings, that he flew while at rest, and was at rest when flying. But to each of the other gods he gave two wings upon the shoulders, as meaning that they accompanied Cronus in his flight. And to Cronus himself again he gave two wings upon his head, one representing the all-ruling mind, and one sensation.
This is the form under which ʼĒl/Cronus appears on coins from Byblos from the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BCE) four spread wings and two folded wings, leaning on a staff. Such images continued to appear on coins until after the time of Augustus.
Poseidon
A bilingual inscription from
Poseidon is known to have been worshipped in Beirut, his image appearing on coins from that city. Poseidon of Beirut was also worshipped at Delos where there was an association of merchants, shipmasters, and warehousemen called the Poseidoniastae of Berytus founded in 110 or 109 BCE. Three of the four chapels at its headquarters on the hill northwest of the Sacred Lake were dedicated to Poseidon, the Tyche of the city equated with Astarte (that is 'Ashtart), and to Eshmun.
Also at Delos, that association of Tyrians, though mostly devoted to Heracles-Melqart, elected a member to bear a crown every year when sacrifices to Poseidon took place. A banker named Philostratus donated two altars, one to Palaistine Aphrodite Urania ('Ashtart) and one to Poseidon "of Ascalon".
Though Sanchuniathon distinguishes Poseidon from his Elus/Cronus, this might be a splitting off of a particular aspect of ʼĒl in a euhemeristic account. Identification of an aspect of ʼĒl with Poseidon rather than with Cronus might have been felt to better fit with Hellenistic religious practice, if indeed this Phoenician Poseidon really is the ʼĒl who dwells at the source of the two deeps in Ugaritic texts. More information is needed to be certain.
See also
- Elagabalus (deity)
- Divine Council
- Allah
- Ancient Semitic religion
- Anu
- Enki
- Names of God in Judaism
- Theophory in the Bible
- Ahura Mazda
Footnotes
- ^ Fontenrose 1957, p. 277–279.
- ^ Feliu 2007, p. 301.
- ^ a b Güterbock 1983, p. 325–326.
- ^ a b Archi 2004, p. 329.
- ISSN 0255-0962. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
- ^ "Online Phoenician Dictionary". Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- ^ Cross 1997, p. 14.
- ^ Kogan, Leonid (2015), Genealogical Classification of Semitic: The Lexical Isoglosses. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. p. 147.
- ^ Matthews 2004, p. 79.
- ^ Gelb 1961, p. 6.
- ^ Smith 2001, p. 135.
- ^ a b Leeming 2005, p. 118.
- ^ Rahmouni 2007, p. 41.
- ISBN 9780664231354.
[...] Elohim – a flux of syllables, labial, multiple. Its ending marks it stubbornly as a plural form of "eloh"; here (but not always) it takes the singular verb form [...]
- ISBN 978-0-567-65880-7.
- ^ Beeston, A. F. L. (1982). Sabaic dictionary: English, French, Arabic. Louvain-la-Neuve: Editions Peeters. p. 5.
ˀL I n. ˀl, ˀl-m R 3945/1 &c (ḏ—ws²ymm), ˀlh, d. ˀly, p. ˀlˀlt; f. ˀlt Gl 1658/5, YM 386/4, ˀlht YM 386/2, ?p.? ˀlht J2867/8 god/goddess, divinity | dieu/déesse, divinité
- ^ ISBN 978-0190072544.
- ^ Cross 1973, p. 19.
- ^ Wyatt 2002, p. 43.
- S2CID 162288496.
- ^ Albright, Wm. F. (1966) The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and their Decipherment, p. 24
- ^ Robert William Rogers, ed., Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament (New York: Eaton & Mains, & Cincinnati, Ohio: Jennings & Graham, 1912), pp. 268–278.
- ^ Rosenthal 1969, p. 658.
- ^ Cross 1973, p. 17.
- ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 129.
- ^ Binger 1997, p. 92.
- ^ Cross 1973, p. 39.
- ^ Kugel 2007, p. 423.
- ^ a b Cross 1973, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d Cassuto, Umberto. The Goddess Anath: Canaanite Epics on the Patriarchal Age. Bialik Institute, 1951, p. 42–44 (in Hebrew)
- OCLC 185416183.
- ^ van der Toorn, Becking & van der Horst 1999, p. 181.
- OCLC 3835386.
- OCLC 32346244.
- ^ KTU 1.2 III AB B
- ^ KTU 1.2 III AB C
- ^ KTU 1.4 IV 21.
- ^ KTU 1.100.3.
- ^ Steiner (2009).
- ^ Palmer, Sean B. "El's Divine Feast". inamidst.com. Sean B. Palmer. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
- OCLC 497549822.
- ^ Margalit 1989, p. 484.
- OCLC 243545942.
- ^ Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 938). New York: Doubleday.
- ^ Smith 2002, pp. 32–34.
- ^ "Genesis 3 (Blue Letter Bible/ KJV – King James Version)". Retrieved 8 May 2013.
- ^ "Genesis 4: King James Version (KJV)". Blue Letter Bible.
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 80.
- ISBN 978-1-57506-066-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8054-9935-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-937026-9.
- ISBN 978-90-474-4232-5.
- ^
OCLC 45355375.
- ^ Cross 1973.
- ISBN 978-0-567-66396-2.
- ISBN 978-0-567-52815-5.
- ISBN 978-0-19-022211-6.
- ISBN 978-0-567-53783-6.
- ISBN 978-1-317-24713-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4412-0112-6.
- ISBN 978-3-16-149543-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8308-1783-2.
- ^ S2CID 162038758.
- ^ van der Toorn, Becking & van der Horst 1999, p. 294.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2335-9.
- ISBN 9781575060699.
- ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 11, p. 43. and No. 129.
- ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 26.
- ISSN 0934-2575.
References
- Archi, Alfonso (2004). "Translation of Gods: Kumarpi, Enlil, Dagan/NISABA, Ḫalki". Orientalia. 73 (4). GBPress – Gregorian Biblical Press: 319–336. JSTOR 43078173. Retrieved 1 February 2023.
- Binger, Tilde (1997). Asherah: Goddesses in Ugarit, Israel and the Old Testament. Sheffield, England: OCLC 37525364.
- OCLC 185400934.
- ISBN 0674091760, retrieved 30 April 2015
- Donner, Herbert; Röllig, Wolfgang (1962–1964). Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz.
- Gelb, I. J. (1961), Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar (PDF) (2nd ed.), University of Chicago, retrieved 30 April 2015.
- Feliu, Lluís (2007). "Two brides for two gods. The case of Šala and Šalaš". He unfurrowed his brow and laughed. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. OCLC 191759910.
- Fontenrose, Joseph (1957). "Dagon and El". Oriens. 10 (2): 277–279. JSTOR 1579640.
- Güterbock, Hans Gustav (1983), "Kumarbi", Reallexikon der Assyriologie
- OCLC 181602277.
- Leeming, David (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 60492027.
- Margalit, Baruch (1989). The Ugaritic poem of Aqht: text; translation; commentary. Berlin, Germamy: de Gruyter. ISBN 0-89925-472-1.
- OCLC 52380969.
- Rahmouni, Aicha (2007). Divine epithets in the Ugaritic alphabetic texts. Translated by Ford, J. N. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts: Brill. ISBN 9789004157699.
- OCLC 5342384.
- OCLC 53388532.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3972-5.
- Steiner, Richard C. (Fall 2009). "On the Rise and Fall of Canaanite Religion at Baalbek: A Tale of Five Toponyms". Journal of Biblical Literature. 128 (3): 507–525. JSTOR 25610200. Archived from the originalon 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
- Tsumura, David Toshio (2024). Was There a Cult of El in Ancient Canaan?: Essays on Ugaritic Religion and Language. Orientalische Religionen in der Antike. Vol. 55. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-161278-7.
- OCLC 39765350.
- OCLC 48979997.
Further reading
External links